Opportunity Costs And Why Fireworks Complaints Are Up This Year

Opportunity Costs And Why Fireworks Complaints Are Up This Year

The number of fireworks being lit off at night is out of control this year.

While people often light off fireworks close to the Fourth of July, this year fireworks have been lit in large numbers starting weeks earlier. New York City had a 4,000% increase in fireworks complaints in the first two weeks of June compared with last year. This prompted Mayor Bill de Blasio to vow a crackdown on illegal fireworks.

Complaints about fireworks are not confined to just New York City, but in cities across the country like San Francisco, Denver, Harrisburg, Albuquerque, Providence and many other places. This has led to a rise in conspiracy theories, including one that the nightly noise is an elaborate government plot to create confusion in neighborhoods.

I am an economist who has spoken and written about fireworks for years. After hearing a constant barrage nightly for weeks, I began wondering why so many people are lighting off fireworks this year.

It isn’t economics

There are two possible economic reasons behind an increase in fireworks usage: falling prices or increased supply. However, neither of these is the culprit behind the increase in fireworks usage this year.

The vast majority of the fireworks individuals shoot off in the U.S. are manufactured overseas, mainly in China. Each shipment of fireworks brought into the U.S. includes a detailed invoice that shows the quantity and price the importer paid.

Price data for the first four months of 2020 show importers paid an average of US$2.63 per kilogram for fireworks from China. A year earlier, importers paid an average of $2.60 per kilogram. This means prices rose slightly from 2019 to 2020, eliminating the falling price argument.

Increased supply is also not the reason. In a typical year there are two holidays with widespread firework usage; New Year’s Eve and the Fourth of July.

Deliveries in 2020 are an exception to this pattern. Because of the coronavirus, the U.S. imported very few fireworks in March. During the first four months of 2020 the U.S. imported 9 million kilograms of fireworks from China. While this seems like a large number, it is one-third less than a year earlier.

Fireworks are much more common around holidays like New Year’s Eve. Tayfun Coskun/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images

Nor is it legal reform

Another potential reason could be changes in laws.

Most major dense cities like New York, Chicago and San Francisco ban fireworks.

However, if neighboring jurisdictions have loosened their rules, then people can easily drive outside the city to purchase fireworks.

There has been a steady reduction in state prohibitions against individuals using fireworks. Today only one state, Massachusetts, completely prohibits individuals from owning and using any type of fireworks. All the rest allow them in some form.

However, the most recent two states to allow consumers to shoot off fireworks are New Jersey in 2017 and Delaware in 2018. Since most states relaxed prohibitions against fireworks more than two years ago, recent rule changes also cannot be behind the increase.

The most likely culprit

To find the real reason, it helps to consider that millions of Americans have been locked down in their homes and apartments for months. As an employee at a fireworks store in Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, put it, “People are bored. They just want to blow stuff up.”

While this argument is understandable, I think the most likely reason is even simpler. And it has a lot to do with opportunity costs, something economists spend a lot of time thinking about.

Opportunity costs put a dollar value on what else a person could do with their time. For example, before the pandemic, I had many choices at night. I could work, go out with friends, watch television or see a movie in the theater.

By shutting down restaurants, theaters, bars and other venues, COVID-19 has dramatically reduced my choices.

The pandemic has also thrown millions out of work. Many people who would normally be working at night are not. This means the opportunity cost for using fireworks is exceptionally low compared with before, since there are so few opportunities to socialize, be entertained or work.

Beyond lower opportunity costs for fireworks users, there are many unemployed people who are now looking for opportunities to earn money. Buying fireworks in a rural area like northern Pennsylvania and selling them at higher prices in a city that bans their sale, such as New York City, can be easy and profitable.

So few arrests are made for fireworks that the FBI, which tracks problems like moonshining and polygamy on its detailed list of offenses, does not give it a category.

Idle hands

Fireworks are dangerous. While few people die each year from using them, the latest figures for 2019 show that fireworks hurt about 10,000 people per year in the U.S.

However, massive unemployment caused by COVID-19 is also dangerous.

There is an old quote that idle hands lead to mischief. In this case, idle people lead to large amounts of illegal firework usage.

My belief is that once the millions of unemployed people in the U.S. go back to work, the number of illegal fireworks shot off will rapidly decrease and will once again be limited to the times around New Year’s Eve and the Fourth of July.

Top image: Fireworks light up the sky over New York City in 2019. Gary Hershorn/Getty Images

By Jay L. Zagorsky, Senior Lecturer, Questrom School of Business, Boston University. This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

sb admin Tue, 06/30/2020 - 12:17

Categories

Brain and Behavior

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Opportunity Costs And Why Fireworks Complaints Are Up This Year

The number of fireworks being lit off at night is out of control this year.

While people often light off fireworks close to the Fourth of July, this year fireworks have been lit in large numbers starting weeks earlier. New York City had a 4,000% increase in fireworks complaints in the first two weeks of June compared with last year. This prompted Mayor Bill de Blasio to vow a crackdown on illegal fireworks.

Complaints about fireworks are not confined to just New York City, but in cities across the country like San Francisco, Denver, Harrisburg, Albuquerque, Providence and many other places. This has led to a rise in conspiracy theories, including one that the nightly noise is an elaborate government plot to create confusion in neighborhoods.

I am an economist who has spoken and written about fireworks for years. After hearing a constant barrage nightly for weeks, I began wondering why so many people are lighting off fireworks this year.

It isn’t economics

There are two possible economic reasons behind an increase in fireworks usage: falling prices or increased supply. However, neither of these is the culprit behind the increase in fireworks usage this year.

The vast majority of the fireworks individuals shoot off in the U.S. are manufactured overseas, mainly in China. Each shipment of fireworks brought into the U.S. includes a detailed invoice that shows the quantity and price the importer paid.

Price data for the first four months of 2020 show importers paid an average of US$2.63 per kilogram for fireworks from China. A year earlier, importers paid an average of $2.60 per kilogram. This means prices rose slightly from 2019 to 2020, eliminating the falling price argument.

Increased supply is also not the reason. In a typical year there are two holidays with widespread firework usage; New Year’s Eve and the Fourth of July.

Deliveries in 2020 are an exception to this pattern. Because of the coronavirus, the U.S. imported very few fireworks in March. During the first four months of 2020 the U.S. imported 9 million kilograms of fireworks from China. While this seems like a large number, it is one-third less than a year earlier.

Fireworks are much more common around holidays like New Year’s Eve. Tayfun Coskun/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images

Nor is it legal reform

Another potential reason could be changes in laws.

Most major dense cities like New York, Chicago and San Francisco ban fireworks.

However, if neighboring jurisdictions have loosened their rules, then people can easily drive outside the city to purchase fireworks.

There has been a steady reduction in state prohibitions against individuals using fireworks. Today only one state, Massachusetts, completely prohibits individuals from owning and using any type of fireworks. All the rest allow them in some form.

However, the most recent two states to allow consumers to shoot off fireworks are New Jersey in 2017 and Delaware in 2018. Since most states relaxed prohibitions against fireworks more than two years ago, recent rule changes also cannot be behind the increase.

The most likely culprit

To find the real reason, it helps to consider that millions of Americans have been locked down in their homes and apartments for months. As an employee at a fireworks store in Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, put it, “People are bored. They just want to blow stuff up.”

While this argument is understandable, I think the most likely reason is even simpler. And it has a lot to do with opportunity costs, something economists spend a lot of time thinking about.

Opportunity costs put a dollar value on what else a person could do with their time. For example, before the pandemic, I had many choices at night. I could work, go out with friends, watch television or see a movie in the theater.

By shutting down restaurants, theaters, bars and other venues, COVID-19 has dramatically reduced my choices.

The pandemic has also thrown millions out of work. Many people who would normally be working at night are not. This means the opportunity cost for using fireworks is exceptionally low compared with before, since there are so few opportunities to socialize, be entertained or work.

Beyond lower opportunity costs for fireworks users, there are many unemployed people who are now looking for opportunities to earn money. Buying fireworks in a rural area like northern Pennsylvania and selling them at higher prices in a city that bans their sale, such as New York City, can be easy and profitable.

So few arrests are made for fireworks that the FBI, which tracks problems like moonshining and polygamy on its detailed list of offenses, does not give it a category.

Idle hands

Fireworks are dangerous. While few people die each year from using them, the latest figures for 2019 show that fireworks hurt about 10,000 people per year in the U.S.

However, massive unemployment caused by COVID-19 is also dangerous.

There is an old quote that idle hands lead to mischief. In this case, idle people lead to large amounts of illegal firework usage.

My belief is that once the millions of unemployed people in the U.S. go back to work, the number of illegal fireworks shot off will rapidly decrease and will once again be limited to the times around New Year’s Eve and the Fourth of July.

Top image: Fireworks light up the sky over New York City in 2019. Gary Hershorn/Getty Images

By Jay L. Zagorsky, Senior Lecturer, Questrom School of Business, Boston University. This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

sb admin Tue, 06/30/2020 - 12:17

Categories

Brain and Behavior

from ScienceBlogs - Where the world discusses science https://ift.tt/38gPcGz

When the sky exploded: Remembering Tunguska

Photo from the Soviet Academy of Science 1927 expedition, led by Leonid Kulik, showing trees knocked over by the Tunguska blast in 1908. Image via Wikipedia.

June 30 is Asteroid Day 2020

On the morning of June 30, 1908, the largest asteroid impact in recorded history occurred in a remote part of Siberia, Russia. The explosion happened over the sparsely populated Eastern Siberian taiga, above Siberia’s Podkamennaya Tunguska River in what is now Krasnoyarsk Krai. The blast flattened an estimated 80 million trees over an area of 830 square miles (2,150 square km) of forest. We now celebrate Asteroid Day each year on the anniversary of what is now known as the Tunguska event.

Witnesses reported seeing a fireball – a bluish light, nearly as bright as the sun – moving across the sky, followed by a flash and a sound similar to artillery fire. Along with the sound was a powerful shockwave that broke windows hundreds of miles away and knocked people off their feet. The explosion in the sky was like nothing ever seen before.

Even though there was no crater found, it is still categorized as an impact event, and is believed to have been caused by an incoming asteroid (or comet), which never actually struck Earth but instead exploded in the atmosphere, causing what is known as an air burst, three to six miles (five to ten km) above Earth’s surface. Even though the asteroid didn’t hit the Earth per se, the atmospheric explosion was still enough to cause massive damage to the forest in the region. Recent research shows that the object was most likely a stony asteroid the size of a five-story building that broke apart about 15 miles (24 km) above the ground. It is estimated the asteroid entered Earth’s atmosphere traveling at a speed of about 33,500 miles (54,000 km) per hour.

Another view of fallen trees at Tunguska in Siberia, in 1929. It wasn’t until 1927 that Russian scientists – led by Leonid Kulik – were finally able to get to the scene. Photo via the Soviet Academy of Science/ NASA Science.

The explosion released enough energy to kill reindeer and flatten trees for many miles around the blast site. At the time, it was difficult to reach this remote part of Siberia. It wasn’t until 1927 that Leonid Kulik led the first Soviet research expedition to investigate the Tunguska event. He made a initial trip to the region, interviewed local witnesses and explored the region where the trees had been felled. He became convinced that they were all turned with their roots to the center. He did not find any meteorite fragments, and he did not find a meteorite crater.

So what happened? Over the years, scientists and others concocted fabulous explanations for the Tunguska explosion. Some were pretty wild, such as the encounter of Earth with a stricken alien spacecraft, or a mini-black-hole, or a particle of antimatter.

But the truth is rather more ordinary. It is now thought that, in all likelihood, a small icy comet or stony asteroid collided with Earth’s atmosphere. If it were an asteroid, it might have been about a third as big as a football field – moving at about 10 miles (15 km) per second.

Photo of an air burst, in this case from a U.S. Navy submarine-launched Tomahawk cruise missile. A similar kind of air burst from an incoming asteroid or comet is thought to have flattened the trees in Siberia in 1908. Image via Wikimedia Commons.

In 2019, new research – inspired by a workshop held at NASA’s Ames Research Center in Silicon Valley and sponsored by the NASA Planetary Defense Coordination Office – was published about the Tunguska event, in a series of papers in a special issue of the journal Icarus. The theme of the workshop was reexamining the astronomical cold case of the 1908 Tunguska impact event.

Some vital clues as to what happened during the Tunguska event appeared on February 15, 2013, when a smaller but still impressive meteor burst in the atmosphere near Chelyabinsk, Russia. As NASA explained:

New evidence to help solve the mystery of Tunguska had arrived. This highly documented fireball created an opportunity for researchers to apply modern computer modeling techniques to explain what was seen, heard and felt.

The models were used with video observations of the fireball and maps of the damage on the ground to reconstruct the original size, motion and speed of the Chelyabinsk object. The resulting interpretation is that Chelyabinsk was most likely a stony asteroid the size of a five-story building that broke apart 15 miles above the ground. This generated a shock wave equivalent to a 550-kiloton explosion. The explosion’s shockwave blew out roughly a million windows and injured more than a thousand people. Fortunately, the force of the explosion was not enough to knock down trees or structures.

Per current understanding of the asteroid population, an object like the Chelyabinsk meteor can impact the Earth every 10 to 100 years on average.

Map showing the approximate location of the Tunguska event of 1908 in Siberia, Russia. Image via Wikipedia.

Approximate size comparison of the asteroids/meteorites that exploded over Tunguska and Chelyabinsk, in relation to the Empire State Building and the Eiffel Tower. Image via Wikipedia.

Read more about NASA’s research on the Tunguska event

Due to the Tunguska event, and other, smaller impacts, astronomers have come to take the possibility of catastrophic comet and asteroid impacts more seriously in recent decades. They now have regular observing programs to watch for Near-Earth Objects, as they’re called. There are regular meetings to discuss what might happen if we did find a large object on a collision course with Earth. And space scientists are planning missions to an asteroid, including ESA’s Hera mission, due to launch to the Didymos pair of near-Earth asteroids in 2024, and NASA’s DART mission, also traveling to Didymos, which will launch sometime in late 2021.

Lorien Wheeler, a researcher at NASA Ames Research Center, working on NASA’s Asteroid Threat Assessment Project, said:

Because there are so few observed cases, a lot of uncertainty remains about how large asteroids break up in the atmosphere and how much damage they could cause on the ground. However, recent advancements in computational models, along with analyses of the Chelyabinsk and other meteor events, are helping to improve our understanding of these factors so that we can better evaluate potential asteroid threats in the future.

Smoke trail from the Chelyabinsk meteor, February 15, 2013. Image via Alex Alishevskikh, who caught it about a minute after the blast.

Astronomer David Morrison, also at NASA Ames Research Center, commented:

Tunguska is the largest cosmic impact witnessed by modern humans. It also is characteristic of the sort of impact we are likely to have to protect against in the future.

On February 15, 2013, a similar although smaller airburst occurred over the city of Chelyabinsk, Russia. In this case, the airburst was likely caused by a stony asteroid or meteorite the size of a five-story building that broke apart 15 miles (24 km) above the ground. The shockwave from the blast, equivalent to a 550 kiloton explosion, blew out roughly a million windows and injured more than a thousand people in six cities across Russia.

Bottom line: On June 30, 1908, an object from space, thought to be an asteroid, exploded above Siberia, Russia, in what has become known as the Tunguska event. The explosion flattened thousands of trees, killed reindeer and blew out windows hundreds of miles away.

Source: Icarus special papers on Tunguska

Via NASA

Via NASA Science

Via Wikipedia

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/2KOzXMd

Photo from the Soviet Academy of Science 1927 expedition, led by Leonid Kulik, showing trees knocked over by the Tunguska blast in 1908. Image via Wikipedia.

June 30 is Asteroid Day 2020

On the morning of June 30, 1908, the largest asteroid impact in recorded history occurred in a remote part of Siberia, Russia. The explosion happened over the sparsely populated Eastern Siberian taiga, above Siberia’s Podkamennaya Tunguska River in what is now Krasnoyarsk Krai. The blast flattened an estimated 80 million trees over an area of 830 square miles (2,150 square km) of forest. We now celebrate Asteroid Day each year on the anniversary of what is now known as the Tunguska event.

Witnesses reported seeing a fireball – a bluish light, nearly as bright as the sun – moving across the sky, followed by a flash and a sound similar to artillery fire. Along with the sound was a powerful shockwave that broke windows hundreds of miles away and knocked people off their feet. The explosion in the sky was like nothing ever seen before.

Even though there was no crater found, it is still categorized as an impact event, and is believed to have been caused by an incoming asteroid (or comet), which never actually struck Earth but instead exploded in the atmosphere, causing what is known as an air burst, three to six miles (five to ten km) above Earth’s surface. Even though the asteroid didn’t hit the Earth per se, the atmospheric explosion was still enough to cause massive damage to the forest in the region. Recent research shows that the object was most likely a stony asteroid the size of a five-story building that broke apart about 15 miles (24 km) above the ground. It is estimated the asteroid entered Earth’s atmosphere traveling at a speed of about 33,500 miles (54,000 km) per hour.

Another view of fallen trees at Tunguska in Siberia, in 1929. It wasn’t until 1927 that Russian scientists – led by Leonid Kulik – were finally able to get to the scene. Photo via the Soviet Academy of Science/ NASA Science.

The explosion released enough energy to kill reindeer and flatten trees for many miles around the blast site. At the time, it was difficult to reach this remote part of Siberia. It wasn’t until 1927 that Leonid Kulik led the first Soviet research expedition to investigate the Tunguska event. He made a initial trip to the region, interviewed local witnesses and explored the region where the trees had been felled. He became convinced that they were all turned with their roots to the center. He did not find any meteorite fragments, and he did not find a meteorite crater.

So what happened? Over the years, scientists and others concocted fabulous explanations for the Tunguska explosion. Some were pretty wild, such as the encounter of Earth with a stricken alien spacecraft, or a mini-black-hole, or a particle of antimatter.

But the truth is rather more ordinary. It is now thought that, in all likelihood, a small icy comet or stony asteroid collided with Earth’s atmosphere. If it were an asteroid, it might have been about a third as big as a football field – moving at about 10 miles (15 km) per second.

Photo of an air burst, in this case from a U.S. Navy submarine-launched Tomahawk cruise missile. A similar kind of air burst from an incoming asteroid or comet is thought to have flattened the trees in Siberia in 1908. Image via Wikimedia Commons.

In 2019, new research – inspired by a workshop held at NASA’s Ames Research Center in Silicon Valley and sponsored by the NASA Planetary Defense Coordination Office – was published about the Tunguska event, in a series of papers in a special issue of the journal Icarus. The theme of the workshop was reexamining the astronomical cold case of the 1908 Tunguska impact event.

Some vital clues as to what happened during the Tunguska event appeared on February 15, 2013, when a smaller but still impressive meteor burst in the atmosphere near Chelyabinsk, Russia. As NASA explained:

New evidence to help solve the mystery of Tunguska had arrived. This highly documented fireball created an opportunity for researchers to apply modern computer modeling techniques to explain what was seen, heard and felt.

The models were used with video observations of the fireball and maps of the damage on the ground to reconstruct the original size, motion and speed of the Chelyabinsk object. The resulting interpretation is that Chelyabinsk was most likely a stony asteroid the size of a five-story building that broke apart 15 miles above the ground. This generated a shock wave equivalent to a 550-kiloton explosion. The explosion’s shockwave blew out roughly a million windows and injured more than a thousand people. Fortunately, the force of the explosion was not enough to knock down trees or structures.

Per current understanding of the asteroid population, an object like the Chelyabinsk meteor can impact the Earth every 10 to 100 years on average.

Map showing the approximate location of the Tunguska event of 1908 in Siberia, Russia. Image via Wikipedia.

Approximate size comparison of the asteroids/meteorites that exploded over Tunguska and Chelyabinsk, in relation to the Empire State Building and the Eiffel Tower. Image via Wikipedia.

Read more about NASA’s research on the Tunguska event

Due to the Tunguska event, and other, smaller impacts, astronomers have come to take the possibility of catastrophic comet and asteroid impacts more seriously in recent decades. They now have regular observing programs to watch for Near-Earth Objects, as they’re called. There are regular meetings to discuss what might happen if we did find a large object on a collision course with Earth. And space scientists are planning missions to an asteroid, including ESA’s Hera mission, due to launch to the Didymos pair of near-Earth asteroids in 2024, and NASA’s DART mission, also traveling to Didymos, which will launch sometime in late 2021.

Lorien Wheeler, a researcher at NASA Ames Research Center, working on NASA’s Asteroid Threat Assessment Project, said:

Because there are so few observed cases, a lot of uncertainty remains about how large asteroids break up in the atmosphere and how much damage they could cause on the ground. However, recent advancements in computational models, along with analyses of the Chelyabinsk and other meteor events, are helping to improve our understanding of these factors so that we can better evaluate potential asteroid threats in the future.

Smoke trail from the Chelyabinsk meteor, February 15, 2013. Image via Alex Alishevskikh, who caught it about a minute after the blast.

Astronomer David Morrison, also at NASA Ames Research Center, commented:

Tunguska is the largest cosmic impact witnessed by modern humans. It also is characteristic of the sort of impact we are likely to have to protect against in the future.

On February 15, 2013, a similar although smaller airburst occurred over the city of Chelyabinsk, Russia. In this case, the airburst was likely caused by a stony asteroid or meteorite the size of a five-story building that broke apart 15 miles (24 km) above the ground. The shockwave from the blast, equivalent to a 550 kiloton explosion, blew out roughly a million windows and injured more than a thousand people in six cities across Russia.

Bottom line: On June 30, 1908, an object from space, thought to be an asteroid, exploded above Siberia, Russia, in what has become known as the Tunguska event. The explosion flattened thousands of trees, killed reindeer and blew out windows hundreds of miles away.

Source: Icarus special papers on Tunguska

Via NASA

Via NASA Science

Via Wikipedia

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/2KOzXMd

Dust-laden sunsets over Florida and Texas

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | A sunset shrouded in African dust, captured by John Merriam in Florida on June 28, 2020. Notice the layers of dust, and the bird! Thank you, John!

John Merriam of St. Augustine, Florida, caught the very dusty sunset above on June 28, 2020. He wrote:

The dust has been so thick that most evenings, if it wasn’t storming, you couldn’t see the sun at all. Worked out pretty well this time, and I had no idea the bird was there until I got home and saw the full size image. Taken on the shores of the St Johns River in NW St Johns County, Florida.

This very dusty sunset isn’t just a local phenomenon. It’s due to an unusually large plume of dust from northern Africa’s Saharan Desert, which wafted across the Atlantic beginning just after mid-June. The African plume has brought extremely dusty skies to parts of the U.S. south, and into Texas. The Washington Post’s Capital Weather Gang wrote on June 25, 2020:

An unusually thick, nearly 5,000-mile-long plume of dust that was whisked off the Sahara Desert by storm-related winds June 14 is moving ashore along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico from Texas to the Florida Panhandle. It is predicted to cause a deterioration in air quality and turn the sky a milky white, and its impacts won’t be limited to the coast …

Although plumes of Sahara Desert dust are routinely ejected from Africa’s west coast during June, the ongoing event is extraordinarily rare, scientists said. This event stands out in terms of the dust layer’s thickness, its low altitude and geographic reach, causing a dramatic deterioration in air quality in Puerto Rico, Barbados, Guadeloupe and numerous other locations where records are maintained.

Read more from the Washington Post: Saharan dust plume, the largest in decades, spills over Gulf Coast

Read more from EarthSky: Saharan-fed sunsets in the U.S.

EarthSky’s Deborah Byrd reports that skies have been exceedingly dusty over Austin, Texas, too, despite recent rains. She caught this view of the eastern sky at sunset on June 28, 2020. The view is to the east. You can see the dust especially looking toward the horizon. “That tall building on the far right of the photo is in downtown Austin,” Deborah said. “Normally, I can see it clearly from my back deck, but, in recent days, the view of that building and all of downtown has been constantly shrouded in dust.” Photo by Deborah Byrd.

On June 16, 2020, NOAA’s GOES-East satellite captured this GeoColor imagery of an expansive plume of dust from the Sahara Desert traveling westward across the Atlantic Ocean. NOAA said on June 18 that the dust was expected to reach the Caribbean and parts of the U.S. … and so it has. Read more about this image.

Bottom line: From Florida to Texas, the U.S. south has had very dusty skies in late June 2020. The dust is due to an unusually large dust plume that left northern Africa’s Saharan Desert in mid-June.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/2AgFYgZ

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | A sunset shrouded in African dust, captured by John Merriam in Florida on June 28, 2020. Notice the layers of dust, and the bird! Thank you, John!

John Merriam of St. Augustine, Florida, caught the very dusty sunset above on June 28, 2020. He wrote:

The dust has been so thick that most evenings, if it wasn’t storming, you couldn’t see the sun at all. Worked out pretty well this time, and I had no idea the bird was there until I got home and saw the full size image. Taken on the shores of the St Johns River in NW St Johns County, Florida.

This very dusty sunset isn’t just a local phenomenon. It’s due to an unusually large plume of dust from northern Africa’s Saharan Desert, which wafted across the Atlantic beginning just after mid-June. The African plume has brought extremely dusty skies to parts of the U.S. south, and into Texas. The Washington Post’s Capital Weather Gang wrote on June 25, 2020:

An unusually thick, nearly 5,000-mile-long plume of dust that was whisked off the Sahara Desert by storm-related winds June 14 is moving ashore along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico from Texas to the Florida Panhandle. It is predicted to cause a deterioration in air quality and turn the sky a milky white, and its impacts won’t be limited to the coast …

Although plumes of Sahara Desert dust are routinely ejected from Africa’s west coast during June, the ongoing event is extraordinarily rare, scientists said. This event stands out in terms of the dust layer’s thickness, its low altitude and geographic reach, causing a dramatic deterioration in air quality in Puerto Rico, Barbados, Guadeloupe and numerous other locations where records are maintained.

Read more from the Washington Post: Saharan dust plume, the largest in decades, spills over Gulf Coast

Read more from EarthSky: Saharan-fed sunsets in the U.S.

EarthSky’s Deborah Byrd reports that skies have been exceedingly dusty over Austin, Texas, too, despite recent rains. She caught this view of the eastern sky at sunset on June 28, 2020. The view is to the east. You can see the dust especially looking toward the horizon. “That tall building on the far right of the photo is in downtown Austin,” Deborah said. “Normally, I can see it clearly from my back deck, but, in recent days, the view of that building and all of downtown has been constantly shrouded in dust.” Photo by Deborah Byrd.

On June 16, 2020, NOAA’s GOES-East satellite captured this GeoColor imagery of an expansive plume of dust from the Sahara Desert traveling westward across the Atlantic Ocean. NOAA said on June 18 that the dust was expected to reach the Caribbean and parts of the U.S. … and so it has. Read more about this image.

Bottom line: From Florida to Texas, the U.S. south has had very dusty skies in late June 2020. The dust is due to an unusually large dust plume that left northern Africa’s Saharan Desert in mid-June.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/2AgFYgZ

Jupiter gives us Pluto in 2020

Mosaic image of Pluto and its largest moon Charon, captured around the time the New Horizons spacecraft swept closest to them on July 14, 2015. Image via NASA/ JHUAPL/ SwRI.

The year 2020 is exceptional for Jupiter and Pluto. These two worlds are having a triple conjunction this year. They’ll come together, move apart, and come together again three times in 2020. The first conjunction took place on April 5. The second one will come on June 30, and the final one on November 12. Because all of these Jupiter-Pluto conjunctions happen when these two planets are in our night sky (as opposed to being lost in the sun’s glare), this year’s Jupiter-Pluto alignment might be the best for centuries to come.

This year, very bright Jupiter and very faint Pluto will remain near each other throughout the year, closely aligned in front of the constellation Sagittarius. Pluto requires a telescope to be seen. No telescope? Try NASA’s Night Sky Network to find star parties and/or astronomy clubs near you.

And you don’t need a telescope to use your imagination. Throughout 2020, dazzling Jupiter will enable us to envision Pluto with the mind’s eye on the sky’s dome. First find Jupiter and – presto – you’ve nearly stumbled upon Pluto. Just remember, Jupiter outshines Pluto by several million times.

Where are these worlds now? Both rise into the southeast sky around nightfall or early evening in late June/early July 2020. Jupiter and Pluto climb upward throughout the evening hours, to reach the meridian roughly an hour after midnight, and then sit low in the southwest sky at daybreak.

Jupiter and Pluto are in conjunction on June 30, 2020. Less than one week later, in early July 2020, the moon strolls by the king planet Jupiter, the dwarf planet Pluto, and the ringed planet Saturn. Pluto, although not shown on the above chart, is just a touch south of Jupiter on the sky’s dome. All these planets swing to opposition in July 2020: Jupiter (July 14), Pluto (July 15), Saturn (July 20). Read more.

Of course, although Jupiter and Pluto nearly align along the same line of sight throughout 2020, these two worlds aren’t close together in space. Jupiter is a bit more than 5 astronomical units (AU) from the sun, while Pluto lodges way beyond Jupiter, in the Kuiper Belt, at about 34 AU from the sun. One astronomical unit (AU) = one sun/Earth distance.

Jupiter’s and Pluto’s present distance in AU via Heavens-Above

Here’s some observational data about Pluto for 2020, from In-the-Sky.org

Steven Bellavia in Mattituck, New York, captured Pluto on 2 separate nights, June 24 and June 27, 2019. In this animated gif, you can see that Pluto moved in front of the stars between those 2 nights. Steven wrote: “Most of the motion you see is actually from the Earth, not Pluto, since our motion changes our perspective of the much-closer Pluto against the backdrop of the much-farther stars.” Thanks, Steven!

Two planets are said to be in conjunction whenever they reside north and south of one another on the sky’s dome. Conjunctions of Jupiter and Pluto recur in periods of 12 to 13 years. The previous Jupiter-Pluto conjunction happened on December 11, 2007, and the one before that on December 2, 1994. After 2020, the next Jupiter-Pluto conjunction will occur on February 4, 2033, and the one following that on April 12, 2045. But the gap between Jupiter and Pluto at each one of these conjunctions is quite far apart, and the conjunctions of 1994, 2007, and 2033 happen so close to the sun that even Jupiter is lost in the sun’s glare.

Far and away, 2020 presents the best alignment of Jupiter and Pluto in the 21st century (2001 to 2100). What’s more, Jupiter and Pluto stage three conjunctions this year, as Jupiter passes less than one degree north of Pluto at each conjunction on April 5, June 30 and November 12, 2020. (For reference, the moon’s angular diameter spans about 1/2 degree of sky.) All of these conjunctions in 2020 take place in front of the constellation Sagittarius, with Jupiter first passing Pluto on April 5 in prograde (going eastward in front of the backdrop stars), then sweeping past Pluto on June 30 in retrograde (going westward relative to the background stars), and then for the final Jupiter-Pluto conjunction on November 12 in prograde (eastward).

All three Jupiter-Saturn conjunctions on April 5, June 30 and November 12, 2020 take pace place in front of the constellation Sagittarius, not far from the 5th-magnitude star 56 Sagittarii. Constellation chart via International Astronomical Union (IAU).

Most of the time, a Jupiter-Pluto conjunction in any year is a solitary event, as Jupiter laps Pluto going eastward, and never looks back. Triple conjunctions of Jupiter and Pluto – which occur over a period of about 7.4 months – are rare because Jupiter has to first catch Pluto going prograde (eastward), then in retrograde (westward) and then in prograde (eastward) again. The three-peat performance last happened in 1955-56 (November 2, 1955; February 8 and June 16, 1956), and will next occur in 2106-07 (July 13 and November 2, 2106; February 19, 2107). Yet, all three conjunctions in 1955-56 were widely spaced, and all three conjunctions in 2106-07 will be widely spaced, too.

Illustration showing why a superior planet appears to go in retrograde (westward in front of the backdrop stars of the zodiac). As seen from the north side of the solar system, all the planets orbit counterclockwise. When the faster-moving Earth goes by a slower-moving superior planet, that planet appears to go backward (in retrograde). In 2020, Mars is in retrograde from September 9 to November 15, Jupiter from May 14 to September 13, and Saturn from May 11 to September 29. Image via Wikimedia Commons.

In other words, as we said above, 2020 may well showcase the best Jupiter-Pluto alignment for centuries to come. Most excitingly, both Jupiter and Pluto will reach opposition in mid-July 2020. At opposition, a superior planet – any planet revolving around the sun outside of Earth’s orbit – resides opposite the sun in Earth’s sky.

Opposition happens when Earth flies between a superior planet, like Mars, and the sun. This happens yearly for most of the outer planets (and every other year for Mars). Illustration via Heavens-Above.

At opposition, a superior planet (or superior dwarf planet) rises at sunset and sets at sunrise, and is out all night long. It’s at opposition that a planet shines at its brightest best in Earth’s sky, and it’s at or near opposition that a planet comes closest to Earth for the year.

Jupiter reaches opposition on July 14, 2020, at about 08:00 UTC, and comes closest to Earth on July 15, 2020, at about 10:00 UTC.

Pluto reaches opposition on July 15, 2020, at about 19:00 UTC, and comes closest to Earth on July 13, 2020, at about 09:00 UTC.

In an uncanny bit of timing, the oppositions of Jupiter and Pluto happen almost concurrently in mid-July 2020. A planet reaches opposition midway through a retrograde. However, since Pluto resides so much farther from the sun than Jupiter does, Pluto’s retrograde lasts nearly 1 1/2 months (six weeks) longer than Jupiter’s four-month retrograde. So for near-unison oppositions, Pluto’s retrograde has to start – and end – approximately three weeks before – and after – Jupiter’s retrograde.

Jupiter and Pluto retrograde/opposition in 2020

Jupiter begins retrograde: May 14, 2020, in front of the constellation Sagittarius
Jupiter at opposition: July 14, 2020, in front of the constellation Sagittarius
Jupiter ends retrograde: September 13, 2020, in front of the constellation Sagittarius

Pluto begins retrograde: April 25, 2020, in front of the constellation Sagittarius
Pluto at opposition: July 15, 2020, in front of the constellation Sagittarius
Pluto ends retrograde: October 4, 2020, in front of the constellation Sagittarius

Jupiter-Pluto conjunction tables via Richard Nolle

Call it serendipity or synergy – or whatever – but the spectacular alignment of the king planet Jupiter with the dwarf planet Pluto doesn’t get much better than in 2020. A similarly good Jupiter-Pluto rendezvous might not happen again for a number of centuries to come.

Pluto as seen with a 12″ S/C telescope (14.3 mag.) on July 10, 2015. Photo by Efrain Morales of Sociedad de Astronomia del Caribe. More information about Pluto’s current location.

Bottom line: Jupiter is as easy to find as the dwarf planet Pluto is difficult. Jupiter is bright! It ranks as the fourth-brightest celestial object to light up the heavens, after the sun, moon and Venus. Pluto, on the other hand, is 1,600 times dimmer than the faintest star visible to the unaided eye. But Jupiter can help you find – or at least envision – Pluto this year. That’s because these two worlds are having a triple conjunction this year; they’re near each other on the sky’s dome all year and will come exceptionally close 3 times in 2020.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/2XkisVG

Mosaic image of Pluto and its largest moon Charon, captured around the time the New Horizons spacecraft swept closest to them on July 14, 2015. Image via NASA/ JHUAPL/ SwRI.

The year 2020 is exceptional for Jupiter and Pluto. These two worlds are having a triple conjunction this year. They’ll come together, move apart, and come together again three times in 2020. The first conjunction took place on April 5. The second one will come on June 30, and the final one on November 12. Because all of these Jupiter-Pluto conjunctions happen when these two planets are in our night sky (as opposed to being lost in the sun’s glare), this year’s Jupiter-Pluto alignment might be the best for centuries to come.

This year, very bright Jupiter and very faint Pluto will remain near each other throughout the year, closely aligned in front of the constellation Sagittarius. Pluto requires a telescope to be seen. No telescope? Try NASA’s Night Sky Network to find star parties and/or astronomy clubs near you.

And you don’t need a telescope to use your imagination. Throughout 2020, dazzling Jupiter will enable us to envision Pluto with the mind’s eye on the sky’s dome. First find Jupiter and – presto – you’ve nearly stumbled upon Pluto. Just remember, Jupiter outshines Pluto by several million times.

Where are these worlds now? Both rise into the southeast sky around nightfall or early evening in late June/early July 2020. Jupiter and Pluto climb upward throughout the evening hours, to reach the meridian roughly an hour after midnight, and then sit low in the southwest sky at daybreak.

Jupiter and Pluto are in conjunction on June 30, 2020. Less than one week later, in early July 2020, the moon strolls by the king planet Jupiter, the dwarf planet Pluto, and the ringed planet Saturn. Pluto, although not shown on the above chart, is just a touch south of Jupiter on the sky’s dome. All these planets swing to opposition in July 2020: Jupiter (July 14), Pluto (July 15), Saturn (July 20). Read more.

Of course, although Jupiter and Pluto nearly align along the same line of sight throughout 2020, these two worlds aren’t close together in space. Jupiter is a bit more than 5 astronomical units (AU) from the sun, while Pluto lodges way beyond Jupiter, in the Kuiper Belt, at about 34 AU from the sun. One astronomical unit (AU) = one sun/Earth distance.

Jupiter’s and Pluto’s present distance in AU via Heavens-Above

Here’s some observational data about Pluto for 2020, from In-the-Sky.org

Steven Bellavia in Mattituck, New York, captured Pluto on 2 separate nights, June 24 and June 27, 2019. In this animated gif, you can see that Pluto moved in front of the stars between those 2 nights. Steven wrote: “Most of the motion you see is actually from the Earth, not Pluto, since our motion changes our perspective of the much-closer Pluto against the backdrop of the much-farther stars.” Thanks, Steven!

Two planets are said to be in conjunction whenever they reside north and south of one another on the sky’s dome. Conjunctions of Jupiter and Pluto recur in periods of 12 to 13 years. The previous Jupiter-Pluto conjunction happened on December 11, 2007, and the one before that on December 2, 1994. After 2020, the next Jupiter-Pluto conjunction will occur on February 4, 2033, and the one following that on April 12, 2045. But the gap between Jupiter and Pluto at each one of these conjunctions is quite far apart, and the conjunctions of 1994, 2007, and 2033 happen so close to the sun that even Jupiter is lost in the sun’s glare.

Far and away, 2020 presents the best alignment of Jupiter and Pluto in the 21st century (2001 to 2100). What’s more, Jupiter and Pluto stage three conjunctions this year, as Jupiter passes less than one degree north of Pluto at each conjunction on April 5, June 30 and November 12, 2020. (For reference, the moon’s angular diameter spans about 1/2 degree of sky.) All of these conjunctions in 2020 take place in front of the constellation Sagittarius, with Jupiter first passing Pluto on April 5 in prograde (going eastward in front of the backdrop stars), then sweeping past Pluto on June 30 in retrograde (going westward relative to the background stars), and then for the final Jupiter-Pluto conjunction on November 12 in prograde (eastward).

All three Jupiter-Saturn conjunctions on April 5, June 30 and November 12, 2020 take pace place in front of the constellation Sagittarius, not far from the 5th-magnitude star 56 Sagittarii. Constellation chart via International Astronomical Union (IAU).

Most of the time, a Jupiter-Pluto conjunction in any year is a solitary event, as Jupiter laps Pluto going eastward, and never looks back. Triple conjunctions of Jupiter and Pluto – which occur over a period of about 7.4 months – are rare because Jupiter has to first catch Pluto going prograde (eastward), then in retrograde (westward) and then in prograde (eastward) again. The three-peat performance last happened in 1955-56 (November 2, 1955; February 8 and June 16, 1956), and will next occur in 2106-07 (July 13 and November 2, 2106; February 19, 2107). Yet, all three conjunctions in 1955-56 were widely spaced, and all three conjunctions in 2106-07 will be widely spaced, too.

Illustration showing why a superior planet appears to go in retrograde (westward in front of the backdrop stars of the zodiac). As seen from the north side of the solar system, all the planets orbit counterclockwise. When the faster-moving Earth goes by a slower-moving superior planet, that planet appears to go backward (in retrograde). In 2020, Mars is in retrograde from September 9 to November 15, Jupiter from May 14 to September 13, and Saturn from May 11 to September 29. Image via Wikimedia Commons.

In other words, as we said above, 2020 may well showcase the best Jupiter-Pluto alignment for centuries to come. Most excitingly, both Jupiter and Pluto will reach opposition in mid-July 2020. At opposition, a superior planet – any planet revolving around the sun outside of Earth’s orbit – resides opposite the sun in Earth’s sky.

Opposition happens when Earth flies between a superior planet, like Mars, and the sun. This happens yearly for most of the outer planets (and every other year for Mars). Illustration via Heavens-Above.

At opposition, a superior planet (or superior dwarf planet) rises at sunset and sets at sunrise, and is out all night long. It’s at opposition that a planet shines at its brightest best in Earth’s sky, and it’s at or near opposition that a planet comes closest to Earth for the year.

Jupiter reaches opposition on July 14, 2020, at about 08:00 UTC, and comes closest to Earth on July 15, 2020, at about 10:00 UTC.

Pluto reaches opposition on July 15, 2020, at about 19:00 UTC, and comes closest to Earth on July 13, 2020, at about 09:00 UTC.

In an uncanny bit of timing, the oppositions of Jupiter and Pluto happen almost concurrently in mid-July 2020. A planet reaches opposition midway through a retrograde. However, since Pluto resides so much farther from the sun than Jupiter does, Pluto’s retrograde lasts nearly 1 1/2 months (six weeks) longer than Jupiter’s four-month retrograde. So for near-unison oppositions, Pluto’s retrograde has to start – and end – approximately three weeks before – and after – Jupiter’s retrograde.

Jupiter and Pluto retrograde/opposition in 2020

Jupiter begins retrograde: May 14, 2020, in front of the constellation Sagittarius
Jupiter at opposition: July 14, 2020, in front of the constellation Sagittarius
Jupiter ends retrograde: September 13, 2020, in front of the constellation Sagittarius

Pluto begins retrograde: April 25, 2020, in front of the constellation Sagittarius
Pluto at opposition: July 15, 2020, in front of the constellation Sagittarius
Pluto ends retrograde: October 4, 2020, in front of the constellation Sagittarius

Jupiter-Pluto conjunction tables via Richard Nolle

Call it serendipity or synergy – or whatever – but the spectacular alignment of the king planet Jupiter with the dwarf planet Pluto doesn’t get much better than in 2020. A similarly good Jupiter-Pluto rendezvous might not happen again for a number of centuries to come.

Pluto as seen with a 12″ S/C telescope (14.3 mag.) on July 10, 2015. Photo by Efrain Morales of Sociedad de Astronomia del Caribe. More information about Pluto’s current location.

Bottom line: Jupiter is as easy to find as the dwarf planet Pluto is difficult. Jupiter is bright! It ranks as the fourth-brightest celestial object to light up the heavens, after the sun, moon and Venus. Pluto, on the other hand, is 1,600 times dimmer than the faintest star visible to the unaided eye. But Jupiter can help you find – or at least envision – Pluto this year. That’s because these two worlds are having a triple conjunction this year; they’re near each other on the sky’s dome all year and will come exceptionally close 3 times in 2020.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/2XkisVG

July 2020 guide to the bright planets

Click the name of a planet to learn more about its visibility in July 2020: Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, Venus, Mercury

Try Stellarium for a precise view of the planets from your location.

Want precise planet rise and set times? Click here for recommended almanacs

Watch for the moon to appear in the vicinity of Jupiter and Saturn for several days, centered on or near June 5, 2020. Read more.

Get up early on July 11 and 12, 2020, to see the waning moon with the red planet Mars. Read more.

Starting in mid-July 2020, use the waning crescent moon and Venus to locate Mercury near the horizon as the morning darkness begins to give way to dawn. Read more.

The waning crescent moon passes to the north of dazzling Venus on or near July 17. Read more.

Jupiter and Saturn are near one another on the sky’s dome, with Saturn following Jupiter westward across the sky from early evening until dawn. Around the world, Jupiter and nearby Saturn rise during nightfall in early July, around sunset in mid-July, and before sundown by the month’s end.

It’s a banner month for these gas giant worlds, as Jupiter and Saturn both come to opposition this month. At and around opposition, Earth swings closest to Jupiter and Saturn for the year, and Jupiter and Saturn, in turn, shine at their brightest best and are out all night long.

Read more: Jupiter at opposition on July 13-14

Read more: We go between Saturn and the sun July 20

Look first for brilliant Jupiter and you’ll find Saturn a rather short hop to the east of the king planet. Although Saturn is easily as bright as a 1st-magnitude star, the ringed planet pales next the the king planet Jupiter, which outshines Saturn by some 15 times. After all, Jupiter ranks as the fourth brightest celestial object, after the sun, moon, and the planet Venus, respectively.

Watch for the moon in the vicinity of Jupiter and Saturn for several days, centered on or near July 5.

In July 2020, Jupiter and Saturn climb up highest for the night around midnight. Given an unobstructed southeast horizon, you should have little trouble catching the planets Jupiter and Saturn low in the southeast sky at nightfall or early evening. Use Jupiter and Saturn to find the “Teapot” asterism in the constellation Sagittarius the Archer. Read more.

Mars is the first of the three bright morning planets to rise in July 2020: Mars comes up at late night, roughly around midnight. Then, a few to several hours later, Venus rises into the predawn sky; and by the second half of July 2020, Mercury will appear below Venus at morning dawn.

Sometime this month, Mars will rise before midnight, to sit low in the east at late evening. By August, look for Mars to be up by mid-to-late evening.

At mid-northern latitudes, Mars rises around the midnight hour in early July, and roughly 10 p.m. (11 p.m. daylight-saving time) by the month’s end. By midnight, we mean midway between sunset and sunrise.

At temperate latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere, Mars comes up at or near the midnight hour in early July, and about an hour earlier by the month’s end.

Let the waning moon help guide your eye to Mars on the mornings of July 11 and 12.

In July 2020 … you’ll find Mars respectably bright – easily as brilliant as a 1st-magnitude star – in the predawn/dawn sky. Earth will be rushing along in its smaller, faster orbit, gaining on Mars, the fourth planet outward from the sun. Throughout the next three months, watch for Mars to brighten dramatically as Earth closes in on Mars. The red planet will appear brightest in our sky and fiery red – around the time of its opposition – when Earth passes between Mars and the sun on October 13, 2020. At that wondrous time, Mars will actually supplant Jupiter as the sky’s fourth-brightest celestial body, after the sun, moon, and the planet Venus, respectively.

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | From Paul Armstrong, who took this photo of Mars, Saturn and Jupiter on the morning of April 15, 2020, from Exmoor, U.K. Jupiter is at the upper right, Mars at center left, with Saturn between them. In May 2020, Jupiter and Saturn were closer together, whereas Mars was farther away from Jupiter and Saturn. Thanks, Paul!

Venus – the brightest planet – rushed between the Earth and sun (inferior conjunction) on June 3, 2020. At that point, it transitioned out of the evening sky and into the morning sky. We first saw Venus reappear in the east at dawn around mid-June. Throughout July, this blazing world will climb progressively higher into the eastern predawn sky.

At mid-northern latitudes, Venus rises about 2 hours before the sun in early July, increasing to about 3 hours by the month’s end.

At and near the equator, Venus rises about 2 1/3 hours before the sun in early July, increasing to over 3 hours near the month’s end.

At temperate latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere, Venus rises about 2 2/3 hours before the sun in early July, increasing to over 3 hours by the month’s end.

Inferior conjunction – when Venus sweeps between the sun and Earth – happened on June 3, 2020. Just before inferior conjunction, we saw Venus as a thin waning crescent in the evening sky; and just after inferior conjunction, we saw Venus as a thin waxing crescent in the morning sky. In July 2020, Venus will start the month about 19 percent illuminated and end the month about 42 percent illuminated. Image via UCLA.

Throughout July, Venus in its faster orbit around the sun will be going farther and farther away from Earth. As viewed through the telescope, Venus’ waxing crescent phase will widen, yet its overall disk size will shrink. Venus’ disk is 19 percent illuminated in early July, and about 42 percent illuminated by the month’s end; Venus’ angular diameter, on the other hand, will shrink to 2/3rd the size by the month’s end.

Look for Venus to beam at its brightest in the morning sky on or around July 10, 2020, when Venus displays its greatest illuminated extent on the sky’s dome. Venus always beams at its brightest best when its disk is about one-quarter illuminated by sunshine. In fact, if you’re up before dawn, note that Venus at its brightest closely couples up with Aldebaran, the brightest star in the constellation Taurus the Bull.

If you’re up before dawn July 10, 2020, look for Aldebaran, the brightest star in the constellation Taurus the Bull, quite close to Venus on the sky’s dome. Read more.

Watch for the waning crescent moon in the vicinity of Venus for several days, centered on or near July 17.

Mercury transitions out of the evening sky and into the morning sky on July 1, and then reaches its greatest elongation in the morning sky on July 22, 2020. We expect Mercury to become visible in the eastern dawn sky around mid-month. Have binoculars handy, however, for Mercury has to compete with the glow of morning twilight. Given an unobstructed horizon in the direction of sunrise, you have a reasonably good chance of catching Mercury in the second half of July, as this world brightens throughout the month.

For several mornings, starting on or around July 16, let the waning crescent moon and the brilliant planet Venus guide you to Mercury’s place near the horizon.

Mercury reaches its greatest elongation on July 22, 2020, at which juncture Mercury will be 20 degrees west of the sun. After that date, Mercury will slowly fall sunward day by day.

Here are Mercury’s approximate rising times for 40 degrees north latitude, the equator (0 degrees latitude) and 35 degrees south latitude (given an unobstructed eastern horizon):

40 degrees north latitude:
July 15: Mercury rises 66 minutes (1 1/10 hours) before the sun
July 22: Mercury rises 90 minutes (1 1/2 hours) before the sun
August 1: Mercury rises 80 minutes (1 1/3 hours) before the sun

Equator (0 degrees latitude)
July 15: Mercury rises 75 minutes (1 1/4 hours) before sunrise
July 22: Mercury rises 84 minutes (1 2/5 hours) before sunrise
August 1: Mercury rises 66 minutes (1 1/10 hours) before sunrise

35 degrees south latitude
July 15: Mercury rises 80 minutes (1 1/3 hours) before sunrise
July 22: Mercury rises 80 minutes (1 1/3 hours) before sunrise
August 1: Mercury rises 45 minutes (3/4 hour) before sunrise

For more specific information, check out recommended sky almanacs

What do we mean by bright planet? By bright planet, we mean any solar system planet that is easily visible without an optical aid and that has been watched by our ancestors since time immemorial. In their outward order from the sun, the five bright planets are Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. These planets actually do appear bright in our sky. They are typically as bright as – or brighter than – the brightest stars. Plus, these relatively nearby worlds tend to shine with a steadier light than the distant, twinkling stars. You can spot them, and come to know them as faithful friends, if you try.

Skywatcher, by Predrag Agatonovic.

Bottom line: July 2020 presents all 5 bright solar system planets. Catch Jupiter and Saturn at early evening and throughout the night, Mars between midnight and dawn, Venus in the predawn/dawn sky, and Mercury below Venus at dawn in the second half of July.

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Click the name of a planet to learn more about its visibility in July 2020: Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, Venus, Mercury

Try Stellarium for a precise view of the planets from your location.

Want precise planet rise and set times? Click here for recommended almanacs

Watch for the moon to appear in the vicinity of Jupiter and Saturn for several days, centered on or near June 5, 2020. Read more.

Get up early on July 11 and 12, 2020, to see the waning moon with the red planet Mars. Read more.

Starting in mid-July 2020, use the waning crescent moon and Venus to locate Mercury near the horizon as the morning darkness begins to give way to dawn. Read more.

The waning crescent moon passes to the north of dazzling Venus on or near July 17. Read more.

Jupiter and Saturn are near one another on the sky’s dome, with Saturn following Jupiter westward across the sky from early evening until dawn. Around the world, Jupiter and nearby Saturn rise during nightfall in early July, around sunset in mid-July, and before sundown by the month’s end.

It’s a banner month for these gas giant worlds, as Jupiter and Saturn both come to opposition this month. At and around opposition, Earth swings closest to Jupiter and Saturn for the year, and Jupiter and Saturn, in turn, shine at their brightest best and are out all night long.

Read more: Jupiter at opposition on July 13-14

Read more: We go between Saturn and the sun July 20

Look first for brilliant Jupiter and you’ll find Saturn a rather short hop to the east of the king planet. Although Saturn is easily as bright as a 1st-magnitude star, the ringed planet pales next the the king planet Jupiter, which outshines Saturn by some 15 times. After all, Jupiter ranks as the fourth brightest celestial object, after the sun, moon, and the planet Venus, respectively.

Watch for the moon in the vicinity of Jupiter and Saturn for several days, centered on or near July 5.

In July 2020, Jupiter and Saturn climb up highest for the night around midnight. Given an unobstructed southeast horizon, you should have little trouble catching the planets Jupiter and Saturn low in the southeast sky at nightfall or early evening. Use Jupiter and Saturn to find the “Teapot” asterism in the constellation Sagittarius the Archer. Read more.

Mars is the first of the three bright morning planets to rise in July 2020: Mars comes up at late night, roughly around midnight. Then, a few to several hours later, Venus rises into the predawn sky; and by the second half of July 2020, Mercury will appear below Venus at morning dawn.

Sometime this month, Mars will rise before midnight, to sit low in the east at late evening. By August, look for Mars to be up by mid-to-late evening.

At mid-northern latitudes, Mars rises around the midnight hour in early July, and roughly 10 p.m. (11 p.m. daylight-saving time) by the month’s end. By midnight, we mean midway between sunset and sunrise.

At temperate latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere, Mars comes up at or near the midnight hour in early July, and about an hour earlier by the month’s end.

Let the waning moon help guide your eye to Mars on the mornings of July 11 and 12.

In July 2020 … you’ll find Mars respectably bright – easily as brilliant as a 1st-magnitude star – in the predawn/dawn sky. Earth will be rushing along in its smaller, faster orbit, gaining on Mars, the fourth planet outward from the sun. Throughout the next three months, watch for Mars to brighten dramatically as Earth closes in on Mars. The red planet will appear brightest in our sky and fiery red – around the time of its opposition – when Earth passes between Mars and the sun on October 13, 2020. At that wondrous time, Mars will actually supplant Jupiter as the sky’s fourth-brightest celestial body, after the sun, moon, and the planet Venus, respectively.

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | From Paul Armstrong, who took this photo of Mars, Saturn and Jupiter on the morning of April 15, 2020, from Exmoor, U.K. Jupiter is at the upper right, Mars at center left, with Saturn between them. In May 2020, Jupiter and Saturn were closer together, whereas Mars was farther away from Jupiter and Saturn. Thanks, Paul!

Venus – the brightest planet – rushed between the Earth and sun (inferior conjunction) on June 3, 2020. At that point, it transitioned out of the evening sky and into the morning sky. We first saw Venus reappear in the east at dawn around mid-June. Throughout July, this blazing world will climb progressively higher into the eastern predawn sky.

At mid-northern latitudes, Venus rises about 2 hours before the sun in early July, increasing to about 3 hours by the month’s end.

At and near the equator, Venus rises about 2 1/3 hours before the sun in early July, increasing to over 3 hours near the month’s end.

At temperate latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere, Venus rises about 2 2/3 hours before the sun in early July, increasing to over 3 hours by the month’s end.

Inferior conjunction – when Venus sweeps between the sun and Earth – happened on June 3, 2020. Just before inferior conjunction, we saw Venus as a thin waning crescent in the evening sky; and just after inferior conjunction, we saw Venus as a thin waxing crescent in the morning sky. In July 2020, Venus will start the month about 19 percent illuminated and end the month about 42 percent illuminated. Image via UCLA.

Throughout July, Venus in its faster orbit around the sun will be going farther and farther away from Earth. As viewed through the telescope, Venus’ waxing crescent phase will widen, yet its overall disk size will shrink. Venus’ disk is 19 percent illuminated in early July, and about 42 percent illuminated by the month’s end; Venus’ angular diameter, on the other hand, will shrink to 2/3rd the size by the month’s end.

Look for Venus to beam at its brightest in the morning sky on or around July 10, 2020, when Venus displays its greatest illuminated extent on the sky’s dome. Venus always beams at its brightest best when its disk is about one-quarter illuminated by sunshine. In fact, if you’re up before dawn, note that Venus at its brightest closely couples up with Aldebaran, the brightest star in the constellation Taurus the Bull.

If you’re up before dawn July 10, 2020, look for Aldebaran, the brightest star in the constellation Taurus the Bull, quite close to Venus on the sky’s dome. Read more.

Watch for the waning crescent moon in the vicinity of Venus for several days, centered on or near July 17.

Mercury transitions out of the evening sky and into the morning sky on July 1, and then reaches its greatest elongation in the morning sky on July 22, 2020. We expect Mercury to become visible in the eastern dawn sky around mid-month. Have binoculars handy, however, for Mercury has to compete with the glow of morning twilight. Given an unobstructed horizon in the direction of sunrise, you have a reasonably good chance of catching Mercury in the second half of July, as this world brightens throughout the month.

For several mornings, starting on or around July 16, let the waning crescent moon and the brilliant planet Venus guide you to Mercury’s place near the horizon.

Mercury reaches its greatest elongation on July 22, 2020, at which juncture Mercury will be 20 degrees west of the sun. After that date, Mercury will slowly fall sunward day by day.

Here are Mercury’s approximate rising times for 40 degrees north latitude, the equator (0 degrees latitude) and 35 degrees south latitude (given an unobstructed eastern horizon):

40 degrees north latitude:
July 15: Mercury rises 66 minutes (1 1/10 hours) before the sun
July 22: Mercury rises 90 minutes (1 1/2 hours) before the sun
August 1: Mercury rises 80 minutes (1 1/3 hours) before the sun

Equator (0 degrees latitude)
July 15: Mercury rises 75 minutes (1 1/4 hours) before sunrise
July 22: Mercury rises 84 minutes (1 2/5 hours) before sunrise
August 1: Mercury rises 66 minutes (1 1/10 hours) before sunrise

35 degrees south latitude
July 15: Mercury rises 80 minutes (1 1/3 hours) before sunrise
July 22: Mercury rises 80 minutes (1 1/3 hours) before sunrise
August 1: Mercury rises 45 minutes (3/4 hour) before sunrise

For more specific information, check out recommended sky almanacs

What do we mean by bright planet? By bright planet, we mean any solar system planet that is easily visible without an optical aid and that has been watched by our ancestors since time immemorial. In their outward order from the sun, the five bright planets are Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. These planets actually do appear bright in our sky. They are typically as bright as – or brighter than – the brightest stars. Plus, these relatively nearby worlds tend to shine with a steadier light than the distant, twinkling stars. You can spot them, and come to know them as faithful friends, if you try.

Skywatcher, by Predrag Agatonovic.

Bottom line: July 2020 presents all 5 bright solar system planets. Catch Jupiter and Saturn at early evening and throughout the night, Mars between midnight and dawn, Venus in the predawn/dawn sky, and Mercury below Venus at dawn in the second half of July.

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Circumpolar stars don’t rise or set

Circumpolar stars stay above the horizon all hours of the day, every day of the year. These stars neither rise nor set but always remain in our sky. Even when you can’t see them – when the sun is out and it’s daytime – these stars are up there, circling endlessly around the sky’s north or south pole.

For instance, the stars of the famous Big Dipper asterism are circumpolar at all latitudes north of 41 degrees north latitude, which includes the northern half of the mainland United States and most of Europe.

From the northern U.S., Canada or similar latitudes, the Big Dipper is circumpolar, always above your horizon. Image shows Big Dipper at midnight at various seasons. “Spring up and fall down” for the Dipper’s appearance in our northern sky. It ascends in the northeast on spring evenings and descends in the northwest on fall evenings. Image via Night Sky Interlude – Spring Skies.

How many circumpolar stars appear in your sky depends on where you are. At the Earth’s North and South Poles, every visible star is circumpolar. That is, at Earth’s North Pole, every star north of the celestial equator is circumpolar, while every star south of the celestial equator stays below the horizon. At the Earth’s South Pole, it’s the exact opposite. Every star south of the celestial equator is circumpolar, whereas every star north of the celestial equator remains beneath the horizon.

At the Earth’s equator, no star is circumpolar because all the stars rise and set daily in that part of the world. You can (theoretically) see every star in the night sky over the course of one year. In practice, of course, things like clouds and horizon haze get in the way.

Places between the equator and poles have some stars that are circumpolar, some stars that rise and set daily (like the sun), and some stars that remain below the horizon all year round. In short, the closer you are to the North or South Pole, the greater the circle of circumpolar stars; the closer you are to the Earth’s equator, the smaller the circle of circumpolar stars.

We in the Northern Hemisphere are lucky to have a moderately-bright star, Polaris, nearly coinciding with the north celestial pole – the point in the sky that’s at zenith (straight overhead) at the Earth’s North Pole.

Draw an imaginary line straight down from Polaris, the North Star, to the horizon, and presto, you have what it takes to draw out the circle of circumpolar stars in your sky.

In the Northern Hemisphere, an imaginary vertical line from the north celestial pole to your horizon serves as a radius measure for the circle of circumpolar stars in your sky. The closer you are to the Earth’s North Pole, the closer the north celestial pole is to your zenith (overhead point).

For people in the Northern Hemisphere, Polaris nearly pinpoints the center of the great big circle of circumpolar stars on the sky’s dome; and the imaginary vertical line from Polaris to the horizon depicts the radius measure. (See the above chart, which has this line drawn in for you.) Let your arm serve as a circle compass, enabling you to envision the circle of circumpolar stars with your mind’s eye. Closer to the equator, the circle of circumpolar stars grows smaller; nearer to the North Pole (or South Pole) the circle of circumpolar stars grows larger.

This technique for locating the circle of circumpolar stars works in the Southern Hemisphere, as well. However, it’s trickier to star-hop to the south celestial pole: the point on the sky’s dome that’s at zenith over the Earth’s South Pole. Practiced stargazers in the Southern Hemisphere rely on the Southern Cross, and key stars, to star-hop to the south celestial pole, as depicted in the illustration below:

Star-hopping to south celestial pole via the Southern Cross and the bright stars Alpha Centauri and Hadar. Read more: Use the Southern Cross to find due south.

The Big Dipper and the W-shaped constellation Cassiopeia circle around Polaris, the North Star, in a period of 23 hours and 56 minutes. The Big Dipper is circumpolar at 41 degrees north latitude, and all latitudes farther north.

The Southern Cross is circumpolar anywhere south of 35 degrees south latitude; yet, in the Northern Hemisphere, it’s the W or M-shaped constellation Cassiopeia that’s circumpolar at all places north of 35 degrees north latitude. (Scroll upward to the chart showing Cassiopeia at nightfall for mid-northern latitudes.)

By the way, Cassiopeia lies on the opposite side of Polaris from the Big Dipper. So from mid-northern latitudes, the Big Dipper and Polaris help you to locate Cassiopeia. See the above animation, in which all the stars revolve full circle around the celestial pole each day – or more precisely: every 23 hours and 56 minutes.

If Cassiopeia is circumpolar in your sky, then the Southern Cross never climbs above your horizon; and conversely, if the Southern Cross is circumpolar in your sky, then the constellation Cassiopeia never climbs above the horizon.

As seen from the tropics (and subtropics), neither the Southern Cross nor Cassiopeia is circumpolar. From this part of the world, the Southern Cross rises over the southern horizon when Cassiopeia sinks below the northern horizon; and conversely, Cassiopeia rises over the northern horizon when the Southern Cross sinks below the southern horizon.

Sky wheeling around Polaris, the North Star. Image via Shutterstock.

Bottom line: Circumpolar stars stay above the horizon all hours of the day, every day of the year. Although you can’t see them, they’re up even in daytime.

Read more: Use the Southern Cross to find due south

.

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Circumpolar stars stay above the horizon all hours of the day, every day of the year. These stars neither rise nor set but always remain in our sky. Even when you can’t see them – when the sun is out and it’s daytime – these stars are up there, circling endlessly around the sky’s north or south pole.

For instance, the stars of the famous Big Dipper asterism are circumpolar at all latitudes north of 41 degrees north latitude, which includes the northern half of the mainland United States and most of Europe.

From the northern U.S., Canada or similar latitudes, the Big Dipper is circumpolar, always above your horizon. Image shows Big Dipper at midnight at various seasons. “Spring up and fall down” for the Dipper’s appearance in our northern sky. It ascends in the northeast on spring evenings and descends in the northwest on fall evenings. Image via Night Sky Interlude – Spring Skies.

How many circumpolar stars appear in your sky depends on where you are. At the Earth’s North and South Poles, every visible star is circumpolar. That is, at Earth’s North Pole, every star north of the celestial equator is circumpolar, while every star south of the celestial equator stays below the horizon. At the Earth’s South Pole, it’s the exact opposite. Every star south of the celestial equator is circumpolar, whereas every star north of the celestial equator remains beneath the horizon.

At the Earth’s equator, no star is circumpolar because all the stars rise and set daily in that part of the world. You can (theoretically) see every star in the night sky over the course of one year. In practice, of course, things like clouds and horizon haze get in the way.

Places between the equator and poles have some stars that are circumpolar, some stars that rise and set daily (like the sun), and some stars that remain below the horizon all year round. In short, the closer you are to the North or South Pole, the greater the circle of circumpolar stars; the closer you are to the Earth’s equator, the smaller the circle of circumpolar stars.

We in the Northern Hemisphere are lucky to have a moderately-bright star, Polaris, nearly coinciding with the north celestial pole – the point in the sky that’s at zenith (straight overhead) at the Earth’s North Pole.

Draw an imaginary line straight down from Polaris, the North Star, to the horizon, and presto, you have what it takes to draw out the circle of circumpolar stars in your sky.

In the Northern Hemisphere, an imaginary vertical line from the north celestial pole to your horizon serves as a radius measure for the circle of circumpolar stars in your sky. The closer you are to the Earth’s North Pole, the closer the north celestial pole is to your zenith (overhead point).

For people in the Northern Hemisphere, Polaris nearly pinpoints the center of the great big circle of circumpolar stars on the sky’s dome; and the imaginary vertical line from Polaris to the horizon depicts the radius measure. (See the above chart, which has this line drawn in for you.) Let your arm serve as a circle compass, enabling you to envision the circle of circumpolar stars with your mind’s eye. Closer to the equator, the circle of circumpolar stars grows smaller; nearer to the North Pole (or South Pole) the circle of circumpolar stars grows larger.

This technique for locating the circle of circumpolar stars works in the Southern Hemisphere, as well. However, it’s trickier to star-hop to the south celestial pole: the point on the sky’s dome that’s at zenith over the Earth’s South Pole. Practiced stargazers in the Southern Hemisphere rely on the Southern Cross, and key stars, to star-hop to the south celestial pole, as depicted in the illustration below:

Star-hopping to south celestial pole via the Southern Cross and the bright stars Alpha Centauri and Hadar. Read more: Use the Southern Cross to find due south.

The Big Dipper and the W-shaped constellation Cassiopeia circle around Polaris, the North Star, in a period of 23 hours and 56 minutes. The Big Dipper is circumpolar at 41 degrees north latitude, and all latitudes farther north.

The Southern Cross is circumpolar anywhere south of 35 degrees south latitude; yet, in the Northern Hemisphere, it’s the W or M-shaped constellation Cassiopeia that’s circumpolar at all places north of 35 degrees north latitude. (Scroll upward to the chart showing Cassiopeia at nightfall for mid-northern latitudes.)

By the way, Cassiopeia lies on the opposite side of Polaris from the Big Dipper. So from mid-northern latitudes, the Big Dipper and Polaris help you to locate Cassiopeia. See the above animation, in which all the stars revolve full circle around the celestial pole each day – or more precisely: every 23 hours and 56 minutes.

If Cassiopeia is circumpolar in your sky, then the Southern Cross never climbs above your horizon; and conversely, if the Southern Cross is circumpolar in your sky, then the constellation Cassiopeia never climbs above the horizon.

As seen from the tropics (and subtropics), neither the Southern Cross nor Cassiopeia is circumpolar. From this part of the world, the Southern Cross rises over the southern horizon when Cassiopeia sinks below the northern horizon; and conversely, Cassiopeia rises over the northern horizon when the Southern Cross sinks below the southern horizon.

Sky wheeling around Polaris, the North Star. Image via Shutterstock.

Bottom line: Circumpolar stars stay above the horizon all hours of the day, every day of the year. Although you can’t see them, they’re up even in daytime.

Read more: Use the Southern Cross to find due south

.

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What’s a penumbral eclipse of the moon?

April 2013 penumbral eclipse by Stanislaus Ronny Terrance. See the dark shading on one edge of the moon?

Next penumbral lunar eclipse: July 4-5, 2020

An eclipse of the moon can only happen at full moon, when the sun, Earth and moon line up in space, with Earth in the middle. At such times, Earth’s shadow falls on the moon, creating a lunar eclipse. Lunar eclipses happen a minimum of two times to a maximum of five times a year. There are three kinds of lunar eclipses: total, partial and penumbral.

In a total eclipse of the moon, the inner part of Earth’s shadow, called the umbra, falls on the moon’s face. At mid-eclipse, the entire moon is in shadow, which may appear blood red.

In a partial lunar eclipse, the umbra takes a bite out of only a fraction of the moon. The dark bite grows larger, and then recedes, never reaching the total phase.

In a penumbral lunar eclipse, only the more diffuse outer shadow of Earth – the penumbra – falls on the moon’s face. This third kind of lunar eclipse is much more subtle, and much more difficult to observe, than either a total or partial eclipse of the moon. There is never a dark bite taken out of the moon, as in a partial eclipse. The eclipse never progresses to reach the dramatic minutes of totality. At best, at mid-eclipse, very observant people will notice a dark shading on the moon’s face. Others will look and notice nothing at all.

According to eclipse expert Fred Espenak, about 35% of all eclipses are penumbral. Another 30% are partial eclipses, where it appears as if a dark bite has been taken out of the moon. And the final 35% go all the way to becoming total eclipses of the moon, a beautiful natural event.

View larger. | Left, an ordinary full moon with no eclipse. Right, full moon in penumbral eclipse on November 20, 2002. Master eclipse photographer Fred Espenak took this photo when the moon was 88.9% immersed in Earth’s penumbral shadow. There’s no dark bite taken out of the moon. A penumbral eclipse creates only a dark shading on the moon’s face.

In a lunar eclipse, Earth’s shadow falls on the moon. If the moon passes through the dark central shadow of Earth – the umbra – a partial or total lunar eclipse takes place. If the moon only passes through the outer part of the shadow (the penumbra), a subtle penumbral eclipse occurs. Diagram via Fred Espenak’s Lunar Eclipses for Beginners.

Here’s what a partial lunar eclipse looks like. Astronomer Alan Dyer caught it from his home in southern Alberta, Canada, in June 2012. It was pre-dawn, near moonset. Image copyright Alan Dyer. Used with permission.

This is what a total eclipse looks like. This is the total eclipse of October 27, 2004, via Fred Espenak of NASA, otherwise known as Mr. Eclipse. Visit Fred’s page here.

Bottom line: There are three kinds of lunar eclipses: total, partial and penumbral. A penumbral eclipse is very subtle. At no time does a dark bite appear to be taken out of the moon. Instead, at mid-eclipse, observant people will notice a shading on the moon’s face.

Next penumbral lunar eclipse: July 4-5, 2020

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April 2013 penumbral eclipse by Stanislaus Ronny Terrance. See the dark shading on one edge of the moon?

Next penumbral lunar eclipse: July 4-5, 2020

An eclipse of the moon can only happen at full moon, when the sun, Earth and moon line up in space, with Earth in the middle. At such times, Earth’s shadow falls on the moon, creating a lunar eclipse. Lunar eclipses happen a minimum of two times to a maximum of five times a year. There are three kinds of lunar eclipses: total, partial and penumbral.

In a total eclipse of the moon, the inner part of Earth’s shadow, called the umbra, falls on the moon’s face. At mid-eclipse, the entire moon is in shadow, which may appear blood red.

In a partial lunar eclipse, the umbra takes a bite out of only a fraction of the moon. The dark bite grows larger, and then recedes, never reaching the total phase.

In a penumbral lunar eclipse, only the more diffuse outer shadow of Earth – the penumbra – falls on the moon’s face. This third kind of lunar eclipse is much more subtle, and much more difficult to observe, than either a total or partial eclipse of the moon. There is never a dark bite taken out of the moon, as in a partial eclipse. The eclipse never progresses to reach the dramatic minutes of totality. At best, at mid-eclipse, very observant people will notice a dark shading on the moon’s face. Others will look and notice nothing at all.

According to eclipse expert Fred Espenak, about 35% of all eclipses are penumbral. Another 30% are partial eclipses, where it appears as if a dark bite has been taken out of the moon. And the final 35% go all the way to becoming total eclipses of the moon, a beautiful natural event.

View larger. | Left, an ordinary full moon with no eclipse. Right, full moon in penumbral eclipse on November 20, 2002. Master eclipse photographer Fred Espenak took this photo when the moon was 88.9% immersed in Earth’s penumbral shadow. There’s no dark bite taken out of the moon. A penumbral eclipse creates only a dark shading on the moon’s face.

In a lunar eclipse, Earth’s shadow falls on the moon. If the moon passes through the dark central shadow of Earth – the umbra – a partial or total lunar eclipse takes place. If the moon only passes through the outer part of the shadow (the penumbra), a subtle penumbral eclipse occurs. Diagram via Fred Espenak’s Lunar Eclipses for Beginners.

Here’s what a partial lunar eclipse looks like. Astronomer Alan Dyer caught it from his home in southern Alberta, Canada, in June 2012. It was pre-dawn, near moonset. Image copyright Alan Dyer. Used with permission.

This is what a total eclipse looks like. This is the total eclipse of October 27, 2004, via Fred Espenak of NASA, otherwise known as Mr. Eclipse. Visit Fred’s page here.

Bottom line: There are three kinds of lunar eclipses: total, partial and penumbral. A penumbral eclipse is very subtle. At no time does a dark bite appear to be taken out of the moon. Instead, at mid-eclipse, observant people will notice a shading on the moon’s face.

Next penumbral lunar eclipse: July 4-5, 2020

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