This is a glimpse of just a few of the 400-plus earthworks a new study discovered through laser scanning. The discoveries suggest that an ancient Amazon civilization might have been home to millions of people some 2,000 years ago. Image via University of Helsinki/ Nature.
Was an ancient Amazon civilization home to millions?
Researchers have used laser scanning in the Amazon to discover hundreds of ancient earthworks hidden in the jungle. Much of the Amazon is thickly covered in vegetation. But researchers from the University of Helsinki said on July 29, 2026, that using Light Detection and Ranging Imaging (Lidar) helped them peer through forests to reveal earthworks created by people who lived here from 600 BCE to 850 CE. During this approximately 1,500 year time span, researchers said up to 3 million people might have lived in southwestern Amazonia.
The researchers published their peer-reviewed study on July 29, 2026, in the journal Nature.
Earthworks by the Aquiry people
The area the researchers studied was the southwestern region of the Amazon. This area includes portions of present-day Brazil, Bolivia and Peru. The ancient peoples who lived here did not leave behind a record of what they called themselves. Researchers refer to them as the Aquiry civilization, taken from the name indigenous people used for the Acre River.
Also, this was not one large civilization but many communities of people. Co-author Pirjo Kristiina Virtanen of the University of Helsinki said:
This was not a single realm but a network of many different communities.
Because there isn’t stone in this region, the artifacts the population left behind are in the form of earthworks. Earthworks are artificial changes in the land by digging ditches and mounds, for example.
What happened to cause the civilization’s rapid collapse around 850 CE? This is still a mystery. And it might be related to the abrupt collapse of the Maya civilization in Central America around the same time.
The inset at top left shows part of South America with Amazonia in green. The black square is the area where the new research took place. The larger map shows green circles where researchers discovered some of the earthworks. Image via University of Helsinki/ Nature.
Scanning the Amazon from above
Lidar technology allows scientists to “see” through the vegetation in order to map features on the ground. The team surveyed about 4,500 square kilometers (1,700 square miles) of rainforest. Co-author Juha Hyyppä of the Finnish Geospatial Research Institute said:
We flew long, roughly 450-kilometer straight transects, mapping a strip about one kilometer wide every 10 kilometers. This allowed us to cover as large a continuous area as possible.
What they found was more than 400 earthworks. These earthworks were monumental geometric structures of a ceremonial nature, along with some later settlement sites. Researchers then undertook an analysis, extrapolating these discoveries to a larger territory. Their conservative finding was that some 20,000 earthworks may exist. And these could have been formed by and home to some 3 million people.
Lead author Martti Pärssinen of the University of Helsinki said:
Our findings overturn our understanding of the Amazon region’s past. The research shows that the human impact on the Amazon’s environment has been far greater than previously believed.
Modifying the land
It appears the Aquiry people not only dug earthworks but also cleared the land for certain crops and managed tree species they considered valuable.
The civilization, which reached its peak between 100 and 300 CE, burned bamboo trees to make way ceremonial centers. But they also burned them to make room for maize, squash, sweet potatoes, chili peppers, beans, peanuts and other crops. In addition, they bulldozed wide roads leading from one center to another.
It appears the Aquiry also favored protein-rich tree species. These species include the Brazil nut tree, the peach palm with its edible heart, and other fruit trees. Pärssinen said:
This has direct implications for our understanding of the region’s biocultural history. The civilization also affected ancient Amazonia’s carbon production and carbon balance, which should be better accounted for in future climate models.
So far, reseachers have only surveyed a small fraction of the southwestern Amazon. Thus, many more archaeological sites might still lie hidden beneath the forest canopy.
Much of the Amazon is covered by dense forests. But this view of the landscape between the trees shows the Tequinho archeological site in the state of Acre, Brazil. Image via University of Helsinki.
Bottom line: Researchers used laser surveys to reveal hundreds of earthworks across southwestern Amazonia. They estimate that the ancient Amazon civilization could have supported as many as 3 million people at its peak.
This is a glimpse of just a few of the 400-plus earthworks a new study discovered through laser scanning. The discoveries suggest that an ancient Amazon civilization might have been home to millions of people some 2,000 years ago. Image via University of Helsinki/ Nature.
Was an ancient Amazon civilization home to millions?
Researchers have used laser scanning in the Amazon to discover hundreds of ancient earthworks hidden in the jungle. Much of the Amazon is thickly covered in vegetation. But researchers from the University of Helsinki said on July 29, 2026, that using Light Detection and Ranging Imaging (Lidar) helped them peer through forests to reveal earthworks created by people who lived here from 600 BCE to 850 CE. During this approximately 1,500 year time span, researchers said up to 3 million people might have lived in southwestern Amazonia.
The researchers published their peer-reviewed study on July 29, 2026, in the journal Nature.
Earthworks by the Aquiry people
The area the researchers studied was the southwestern region of the Amazon. This area includes portions of present-day Brazil, Bolivia and Peru. The ancient peoples who lived here did not leave behind a record of what they called themselves. Researchers refer to them as the Aquiry civilization, taken from the name indigenous people used for the Acre River.
Also, this was not one large civilization but many communities of people. Co-author Pirjo Kristiina Virtanen of the University of Helsinki said:
This was not a single realm but a network of many different communities.
Because there isn’t stone in this region, the artifacts the population left behind are in the form of earthworks. Earthworks are artificial changes in the land by digging ditches and mounds, for example.
What happened to cause the civilization’s rapid collapse around 850 CE? This is still a mystery. And it might be related to the abrupt collapse of the Maya civilization in Central America around the same time.
The inset at top left shows part of South America with Amazonia in green. The black square is the area where the new research took place. The larger map shows green circles where researchers discovered some of the earthworks. Image via University of Helsinki/ Nature.
Scanning the Amazon from above
Lidar technology allows scientists to “see” through the vegetation in order to map features on the ground. The team surveyed about 4,500 square kilometers (1,700 square miles) of rainforest. Co-author Juha Hyyppä of the Finnish Geospatial Research Institute said:
We flew long, roughly 450-kilometer straight transects, mapping a strip about one kilometer wide every 10 kilometers. This allowed us to cover as large a continuous area as possible.
What they found was more than 400 earthworks. These earthworks were monumental geometric structures of a ceremonial nature, along with some later settlement sites. Researchers then undertook an analysis, extrapolating these discoveries to a larger territory. Their conservative finding was that some 20,000 earthworks may exist. And these could have been formed by and home to some 3 million people.
Lead author Martti Pärssinen of the University of Helsinki said:
Our findings overturn our understanding of the Amazon region’s past. The research shows that the human impact on the Amazon’s environment has been far greater than previously believed.
Modifying the land
It appears the Aquiry people not only dug earthworks but also cleared the land for certain crops and managed tree species they considered valuable.
The civilization, which reached its peak between 100 and 300 CE, burned bamboo trees to make way ceremonial centers. But they also burned them to make room for maize, squash, sweet potatoes, chili peppers, beans, peanuts and other crops. In addition, they bulldozed wide roads leading from one center to another.
It appears the Aquiry also favored protein-rich tree species. These species include the Brazil nut tree, the peach palm with its edible heart, and other fruit trees. Pärssinen said:
This has direct implications for our understanding of the region’s biocultural history. The civilization also affected ancient Amazonia’s carbon production and carbon balance, which should be better accounted for in future climate models.
So far, reseachers have only surveyed a small fraction of the southwestern Amazon. Thus, many more archaeological sites might still lie hidden beneath the forest canopy.
Much of the Amazon is covered by dense forests. But this view of the landscape between the trees shows the Tequinho archeological site in the state of Acre, Brazil. Image via University of Helsinki.
Bottom line: Researchers used laser surveys to reveal hundreds of earthworks across southwestern Amazonia. They estimate that the ancient Amazon civilization could have supported as many as 3 million people at its peak.
The Hubble Space Telescope captured this off-center closeup image of the globular cluster M5 in 2015. Image via HST/ NASA/ ESA/ APOD.
Globular clusters contain the most ancient stars in our Milky Way. They are huge, symmetrical groups of stars packed closely together in space.
They look like round fuzzy balls when seen through telescopes.
Stars in globular clusters probably formed first, as our galaxy was forming.
A globular cluster contains old stars
Globular clusters are tightly packed, symmetrical collections of stars. They orbit mostly in the extended stellar halos surrounding most spiral galaxies. Plus, globular clusters contain some of the oldest stars in a galaxy, forming early in its history. Could it be that – when it was first forming – a spiral galaxy was once a shapeless cloud of gas and dust? And could its first stars have collected into globular clusters? Could these clusters have stayed put in the halo around a galaxy’s center, while the rest of the spinning galaxy flattened out and formed spiral arms?
It’s possible, and the scenario above would explain why globular clusters orbit in a galaxy’s halo and contain its oldest stars.
But, no one knows precisely how globular clusters formed. Or what role, if any, they played in the development of galaxies. We know globular clusters are the oldest, largest and most massive type of star cluster. And globular clusters contain the oldest stars. Their age is determined by their almost complete lack of what astronomers call metals, the heavier elements forged in star interiors. That’s important because the early universe, before the first stars and galaxies were born, contained only hydrogen and helium.
Omega Centauri, containing as many as 10 million stars, is by far the largest globular cluster associated with our Milky Way galaxy. It’s best viewed from the Southern Hemisphere. The image shows only the central part of the cluster, an area about the size of the full moon on the sky’s dome. Image via La Silla Observatory/ ESO.
The difference between a globular cluster and an open cluster
Globular clusters are big, symmetrical and old. They can reach 300 light-years in diameter and contain 10 million stars. On the other hand, open star clusters – such as the Pleiades – contain sibling stars and are scattered throughout the disk of our galaxy and presumably other galaxies.
Globular star clusters are symmetrical in shape, and are densest toward their centers. Open star clusters are irregular in shape and loosely grouped together.
Globular clusters orbit in the halo of our galaxy. Their positions center around the galaxy’s core and expand above and below the galactic disk. Open star clusters tend to orbit within the disk.
Globular star clusters contain hundreds of thousands of stars. Some globular clusters, like Omega Centauri, contain millions of stars. Open star clusters contain only hundreds of stars.
Artist’s concept of globular star clusters orbiting our Milky Way galaxy (the white dots surrounding the disk-shaped galaxy). As it happens, the Milky Way contains over 150 globular clusters. Image via NASA/ Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI).
The Milky Way has over 150 globular clusters
Our own Milky Way has over 150 globular clusters with perhaps more hidden by galactic dust. The Andromeda galaxy (M31), our neighboring spiral galaxy, appears to have around 300 globular clusters.
Some elliptical galaxies, such as M87, have globular clusters. M87 is a giant elliptical galaxy with over 15,000 globular clusters. Over 1,000 globular clusters have been observed telescopically so far. M87 is also home to the supermassive black hole famously imaged by the Event Horizon Telescope in 2019.
The orbits of globular clusters are highly eccentric and inclined to the galactic plane. And they take about a few hundred million years to complete a single orbit since they are in the “outskirts” of a galaxy.
A globular cluster looks like a fuzzy ball in a telescope. Also, there are individual stars at the periphery merging into a solid ball of light towards the center. However, this is simply because the stars are so close together that they can’t be resolved individually telescopically.
At the center of a globular cluster, stars may reach a density of between 100 and 1,000 stars per cubic parsec. That’s in contrast to the density of stars near our sun, estimated at about 0.14 star per cubic parsec. Your night sky would be full of stars if you lived on a planet orbiting a star in a globular cluster!
Globulars are ancient stars
The stars in globular clusters are the galaxy’s most ancient inhabitants. They comprise a population of what astronomers call Population II stars. Their estimated ages are between 11 and 13 billion years old, making them almost as old as the galaxy itself. Not surprisingly, many of these ancient stars have evolved into huge, bloated red giant stars. So will our sun in a few billion years.
The stars in globular clusters are extremely metal-poor. Which is to say, they have tiny amounts of elements heavier than helium compared to the surrounding interstellar medium. Astronomers refer to all elements heavier than helium as “metals.” And the heavier elements made inside stars end up in the interstellar medium via supernova explosions. So, these old stars are expected to lack metals. In other words, Population II stars consist almost exclusively of hydrogen and helium, the materials present in the early universe.
However, globular clusters can have heavier metals, like those in stars that formed more recently. In particular, excesses of sodium, carbon, oxygen and aluminum, with heavier metals such as strontium, yttrium, barium and europium are present in some clusters. These anomalies remain a mystery but astronomers do have a few theories to explain this, such as the early presence of supermassive stars going supernova in the early universe.
The core of the great Hercules globular cluster Messier 13 from the Hubble Space Telescope. Image via ESA/ Wikimedia Commons.
Messier 13 is the best globular cluster in the Northern Hemisphere
The most famous globular cluster in the Northern Hemisphere is M13 in the constellation of Hercules, discovered by Edmond Halley in 1714. Another name for M13 is the Great Globular Cluster. Charles Messier later added it into his famous Messier catalog in 1764. In amateur telescopes, it is a small fuzzy patch of light, some 22,000 light-years from Earth. At the center of this cluster, stars orbit so closely that occasionally they collide. Furthermore, their deaths lead to the creation of new stars known as blue stragglers. This stellar population is the only type of newer stars in globular clusters.
Some other great globular clusters
Other globular clusters of note are M22 in Sagittarius – one of the brightest in the sky – M5 in Serpens and M12 in Ophiuchus. Many of the night sky’s biggest and brightest globular clusters are best viewed on spring nights and often feature in so-called Messier Marathons.
Furthermore, there are two fabulous globular clusters in the Southern Hemisphere. Omega Centauri, also known as NGC 5139, is visible with the unaided eye to observers at low northern latitudes and in the Southern Hemisphere. Omega Centauri contains approximately 10 million stars and is about 16,000 light-years away. The other is 47 Tucanae, noted for having a small, very bright and dense core. In fact, it is one of the most massive globular clusters in the galaxy, containing millions of stars.
Bottom line: Globular clusters are spherical collections of stars, orbiting mostly in the halo of spiral galaxies. Our Milky Way galaxy has over 150 globular clusters containing some of our galaxy’s oldest stars.
The Hubble Space Telescope captured this off-center closeup image of the globular cluster M5 in 2015. Image via HST/ NASA/ ESA/ APOD.
Globular clusters contain the most ancient stars in our Milky Way. They are huge, symmetrical groups of stars packed closely together in space.
They look like round fuzzy balls when seen through telescopes.
Stars in globular clusters probably formed first, as our galaxy was forming.
A globular cluster contains old stars
Globular clusters are tightly packed, symmetrical collections of stars. They orbit mostly in the extended stellar halos surrounding most spiral galaxies. Plus, globular clusters contain some of the oldest stars in a galaxy, forming early in its history. Could it be that – when it was first forming – a spiral galaxy was once a shapeless cloud of gas and dust? And could its first stars have collected into globular clusters? Could these clusters have stayed put in the halo around a galaxy’s center, while the rest of the spinning galaxy flattened out and formed spiral arms?
It’s possible, and the scenario above would explain why globular clusters orbit in a galaxy’s halo and contain its oldest stars.
But, no one knows precisely how globular clusters formed. Or what role, if any, they played in the development of galaxies. We know globular clusters are the oldest, largest and most massive type of star cluster. And globular clusters contain the oldest stars. Their age is determined by their almost complete lack of what astronomers call metals, the heavier elements forged in star interiors. That’s important because the early universe, before the first stars and galaxies were born, contained only hydrogen and helium.
Omega Centauri, containing as many as 10 million stars, is by far the largest globular cluster associated with our Milky Way galaxy. It’s best viewed from the Southern Hemisphere. The image shows only the central part of the cluster, an area about the size of the full moon on the sky’s dome. Image via La Silla Observatory/ ESO.
The difference between a globular cluster and an open cluster
Globular clusters are big, symmetrical and old. They can reach 300 light-years in diameter and contain 10 million stars. On the other hand, open star clusters – such as the Pleiades – contain sibling stars and are scattered throughout the disk of our galaxy and presumably other galaxies.
Globular star clusters are symmetrical in shape, and are densest toward their centers. Open star clusters are irregular in shape and loosely grouped together.
Globular clusters orbit in the halo of our galaxy. Their positions center around the galaxy’s core and expand above and below the galactic disk. Open star clusters tend to orbit within the disk.
Globular star clusters contain hundreds of thousands of stars. Some globular clusters, like Omega Centauri, contain millions of stars. Open star clusters contain only hundreds of stars.
Artist’s concept of globular star clusters orbiting our Milky Way galaxy (the white dots surrounding the disk-shaped galaxy). As it happens, the Milky Way contains over 150 globular clusters. Image via NASA/ Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI).
The Milky Way has over 150 globular clusters
Our own Milky Way has over 150 globular clusters with perhaps more hidden by galactic dust. The Andromeda galaxy (M31), our neighboring spiral galaxy, appears to have around 300 globular clusters.
Some elliptical galaxies, such as M87, have globular clusters. M87 is a giant elliptical galaxy with over 15,000 globular clusters. Over 1,000 globular clusters have been observed telescopically so far. M87 is also home to the supermassive black hole famously imaged by the Event Horizon Telescope in 2019.
The orbits of globular clusters are highly eccentric and inclined to the galactic plane. And they take about a few hundred million years to complete a single orbit since they are in the “outskirts” of a galaxy.
A globular cluster looks like a fuzzy ball in a telescope. Also, there are individual stars at the periphery merging into a solid ball of light towards the center. However, this is simply because the stars are so close together that they can’t be resolved individually telescopically.
At the center of a globular cluster, stars may reach a density of between 100 and 1,000 stars per cubic parsec. That’s in contrast to the density of stars near our sun, estimated at about 0.14 star per cubic parsec. Your night sky would be full of stars if you lived on a planet orbiting a star in a globular cluster!
Globulars are ancient stars
The stars in globular clusters are the galaxy’s most ancient inhabitants. They comprise a population of what astronomers call Population II stars. Their estimated ages are between 11 and 13 billion years old, making them almost as old as the galaxy itself. Not surprisingly, many of these ancient stars have evolved into huge, bloated red giant stars. So will our sun in a few billion years.
The stars in globular clusters are extremely metal-poor. Which is to say, they have tiny amounts of elements heavier than helium compared to the surrounding interstellar medium. Astronomers refer to all elements heavier than helium as “metals.” And the heavier elements made inside stars end up in the interstellar medium via supernova explosions. So, these old stars are expected to lack metals. In other words, Population II stars consist almost exclusively of hydrogen and helium, the materials present in the early universe.
However, globular clusters can have heavier metals, like those in stars that formed more recently. In particular, excesses of sodium, carbon, oxygen and aluminum, with heavier metals such as strontium, yttrium, barium and europium are present in some clusters. These anomalies remain a mystery but astronomers do have a few theories to explain this, such as the early presence of supermassive stars going supernova in the early universe.
The core of the great Hercules globular cluster Messier 13 from the Hubble Space Telescope. Image via ESA/ Wikimedia Commons.
Messier 13 is the best globular cluster in the Northern Hemisphere
The most famous globular cluster in the Northern Hemisphere is M13 in the constellation of Hercules, discovered by Edmond Halley in 1714. Another name for M13 is the Great Globular Cluster. Charles Messier later added it into his famous Messier catalog in 1764. In amateur telescopes, it is a small fuzzy patch of light, some 22,000 light-years from Earth. At the center of this cluster, stars orbit so closely that occasionally they collide. Furthermore, their deaths lead to the creation of new stars known as blue stragglers. This stellar population is the only type of newer stars in globular clusters.
Some other great globular clusters
Other globular clusters of note are M22 in Sagittarius – one of the brightest in the sky – M5 in Serpens and M12 in Ophiuchus. Many of the night sky’s biggest and brightest globular clusters are best viewed on spring nights and often feature in so-called Messier Marathons.
Furthermore, there are two fabulous globular clusters in the Southern Hemisphere. Omega Centauri, also known as NGC 5139, is visible with the unaided eye to observers at low northern latitudes and in the Southern Hemisphere. Omega Centauri contains approximately 10 million stars and is about 16,000 light-years away. The other is 47 Tucanae, noted for having a small, very bright and dense core. In fact, it is one of the most massive globular clusters in the galaxy, containing millions of stars.
Bottom line: Globular clusters are spherical collections of stars, orbiting mostly in the halo of spiral galaxies. Our Milky Way galaxy has over 150 globular clusters containing some of our galaxy’s oldest stars.
The solar eclipse of August 12, 2026, was total as seen from Greenland, Iceland and Spain. But the northern part of the eclipse path was plagued with clouds. Meanwhile, in Spain – where the eclipse happened near sunset – the views were glorious!
Daniel Wiegert was in Mirador de Santa Barbara, Spain, when he captured this record of the first moments of totality for the August 12, 2026, total solar eclipse.View at Earthsky Community Photos. | Alexander Krivenyshev of WorldTimeZone.com captured these views of the August 12, 2026, total solar eclipse from Zaragoza, Spain. A prominence is visible on the edge of the sun. Thank you, Alexander!View at Earthsky Community Photos. | Aurelian Neacsu caught this view of the eclipse thriugh clouds in A Coruna, Spain, Ausust 12, 2026. See the pink prominence extending from the sun/ moon on the left? It’s a great rope of solar material projecting off the sun! Thank you, Aurelian!View at EarthSky Community Photos. | EarthSky’s own Cristina Ortiz Lopez captured the total solar eclipse from Segovia, Spain, on August 12, 2026. Thank you, Cristina!View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Joseph Melendres in La Coruña, Spain, captured this view of totality on August 12, 2026. He wrote that he used a “… 20-power telescope with Viidure objective digital capture camera.” Thank you, Joseph!
And many saw the partial eclipse, too
Outside the path of totality, much of Europe saw a keep partial eclipse. And parts of North America saw a shallower eclipse (but still with up to about 50% coverage in far-north North America).
View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Andrew Heiz captured this sequence of views-of the August 12, 2026, eclipse, which was only partial as viewed from Middletown, New York. Thank you, Andrew!View at EarthSky Community Photos. | From the UK, people saw a deep partial eclipse on August 12, 2026. This image is from David Hawkes in Sheffield, UK, captured this partially eclipsed sun and wrote: “Our local star, the sun, along with the moon is hosting one of the celestial events of the year today.” Thank you, David! Wait. One of the celestial events? Yes. The Perseid meteor shower is peaking on this same day.View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Our longtime friend Kevan Hubbard said the sun was 92% covered by the moon at mid-eclipse, as seen from Seaton Carew, Durham, England, on August 12, 2026. Thank you, Kevan!
We’re still adding photos as they come in! Please check back! Our thanks to all who contributed!
Bottom line: Total solar eclipse August 12, 2026! Whether you saw it or not from your location, you can experience it! See the best images from the EarthSky community here.
The solar eclipse of August 12, 2026, was total as seen from Greenland, Iceland and Spain. But the northern part of the eclipse path was plagued with clouds. Meanwhile, in Spain – where the eclipse happened near sunset – the views were glorious!
Daniel Wiegert was in Mirador de Santa Barbara, Spain, when he captured this record of the first moments of totality for the August 12, 2026, total solar eclipse.View at Earthsky Community Photos. | Alexander Krivenyshev of WorldTimeZone.com captured these views of the August 12, 2026, total solar eclipse from Zaragoza, Spain. A prominence is visible on the edge of the sun. Thank you, Alexander!View at Earthsky Community Photos. | Aurelian Neacsu caught this view of the eclipse thriugh clouds in A Coruna, Spain, Ausust 12, 2026. See the pink prominence extending from the sun/ moon on the left? It’s a great rope of solar material projecting off the sun! Thank you, Aurelian!View at EarthSky Community Photos. | EarthSky’s own Cristina Ortiz Lopez captured the total solar eclipse from Segovia, Spain, on August 12, 2026. Thank you, Cristina!View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Joseph Melendres in La Coruña, Spain, captured this view of totality on August 12, 2026. He wrote that he used a “… 20-power telescope with Viidure objective digital capture camera.” Thank you, Joseph!
And many saw the partial eclipse, too
Outside the path of totality, much of Europe saw a keep partial eclipse. And parts of North America saw a shallower eclipse (but still with up to about 50% coverage in far-north North America).
View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Andrew Heiz captured this sequence of views-of the August 12, 2026, eclipse, which was only partial as viewed from Middletown, New York. Thank you, Andrew!View at EarthSky Community Photos. | From the UK, people saw a deep partial eclipse on August 12, 2026. This image is from David Hawkes in Sheffield, UK, captured this partially eclipsed sun and wrote: “Our local star, the sun, along with the moon is hosting one of the celestial events of the year today.” Thank you, David! Wait. One of the celestial events? Yes. The Perseid meteor shower is peaking on this same day.View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Our longtime friend Kevan Hubbard said the sun was 92% covered by the moon at mid-eclipse, as seen from Seaton Carew, Durham, England, on August 12, 2026. Thank you, Kevan!
We’re still adding photos as they come in! Please check back! Our thanks to all who contributed!
Bottom line: Total solar eclipse August 12, 2026! Whether you saw it or not from your location, you can experience it! See the best images from the EarthSky community here.
This is going to be a tough one! But give it a try if you have a clear view to the east before sunrise on the mornings around August 15. How long before? Not long. You’ll have to wait for bright morning twilight – that is, until shortly before sunrise – to see Jupiter ascend over your eastern horizon. You might catch it, because Jupiter itself is bright! Mercury is fainter. But it’ll be only about one full moon width from Jupiter. Use binoculars, if you have them, to scan near the eastern horizon. After their eye-catching close encounter, Jupiter will climb higher each day in the eastern predawn sky. But Mercury will soon slip away. Chart via EarthSky.
Jupiter-Mercury conjunction August 15, 2026
Here’s a binocular view of Mercury and Jupiter in the morning twilight on August 15. Binoculars will make the planets much easier to see! Both Jupiter and Mercury will float among the stars of Cancer the Crab. At their closest, they’ll be 0.6 degree apart. So if you extend your pinky at arm’s length, you’ll be able to hide both the planets behind it. Don’t miss this conjunction if your sky allows! Chart via EarthSky.
What’s a conjunction?
Astronomers use the word conjunction to describe meetings of planets, stars and other objects in the night sky. The word conjunction comes from Latin, meaning to join together. In modern English language, conjunctions relate to clauses brought together with words like and. In astronomy, conjunctions relate to two or more objects brought together in the sky.
Technically speaking, objects are said to be in conjunction when they have the same right ascension – sort of like celestial longitude – on our sky’s dome.
Practically speaking, objects in conjunction will likely be visible near each other for some days.
Sometimes one of these objects in a conjunction is the sun, so the conjunction can’t be seen. But other conjunctions – between stars, our moon and the planets – can be truly spectacular.
Here’s what the word “conjunction” means to astronomers. You have to think of the whole sky as being divided up into a grid system, like longitude and latitude on Earth. Astronomers call the longitudinal component right ascension. And they call the latitudinal component declination. Technically speaking, 2 objects are said to be in conjunction when they have the same right ascension on our sky’s dome. And that’s what this illustration is showing. It’s showing you exactly what astronomers mean when they say the word conjunction.
We can’t see an inferior conjunction
An inferior conjunction is when an object passes between us and the sun. Any object that orbits the sun closer than Earth does might pass through inferior conjunction from time to time. That is assuming its orbit lies more or less close to the ecliptic.
Usually, though, when astronomers speak of an inferior conjunction, they’re talking about Venus or Mercury, which orbit between Earth and the sun. Astronomers sometimes refer to Venus and Mercury as inferior planets. When they’re at or near inferior conjunction, we generally can’t see them. They’re hidden in the sun’s glare. Occasionally, though, Venus or Mercury at inferior conjunction can be seen to transit across the sun’s disk.
We shouldn’t forget the moon here. It passes between Earth and the sun at new moon once each month. Therefore it would be correct, if a little unusual, to say that the moon is at inferior conjunction when it’s at its new phase.
This chart uses the orbit of Venus to show the the points of inferior and superior conjunction. Venus was last at inferior conjunction on March 23, 2025, and will be in that position again on October 24, 2026. It was last at superior conjunction on January 6, 2026, and will be in that position again on August 11, 2027. Chart via EarthSky.
We can’t see a superior conjunction either
A superior conjunction is when an object passes behind the sun from our point of view. Look at Venus’ orbit in the diagram above. Half of its conjunctions with the sun – when they come together on our sky’s dome – are inferior conjunctions. And half are superior conjunctions. It’s fun to imagine the inferior planets on an endless cycle of passing in front of the sun, as seen from Earth, then behind it, and back again, like squirrels running around a tree.
Meanwhile, the superior planets – or planets farther from the sun than Earth – can never be at inferior conjunction. Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune can never pass between us and the sun. So the superior planets only have superior conjunctions.
But other conjunctions can look beautiful
The most common – and most exciting – type of conjunction doesn’t involve the sun. Any time two objects pass each other on the sky’s dome, they’re said to be at conjunction. This sort of conjunction – maybe between two planets, or a planet and a star, or a star and the moon – happens multiple times every month. They are beautiful. The view can stop you in your tracks.
For example, if you were fortunate enough to have looked at the moon on July 21, 1969, the day that Neil Armstrong took the first step on the moon’s Sea of Tranquility, you’d have seen the moon in conjunction with Spica, the brightest star in the constellation Virgo. They were only about 2 degrees apart that night. That’s a bit more than the width of your index finger held out at arm’s length.
There are always a few particularly good conjunctions every year. On June 8-9, 2026, we were treated to a spectacular conjunction between bright planets Venus and Jupiter, as you can see below. Click here to see a full gallery of Venus-Jupiter conjunction photos captured by members of the EarthSky community.
Watch for and enjoy conjunctions
People often think about the night sky as being permanent and unchanging, at least on a human scale. If you watch the skies often, though, you’ve surely noticed that’s not true. The stars don’t move relative to each other, but they do move across the sky over the course of a single night, as Earth spins under the sky. And, from one night to the next, each star rises and sets four minutes earlier each day, as Earth moves around the sun.
Once you’ve found the ecliptic – the sun’s path across the sky – you can see where the real action is. Because they are relatively close to us, the planets and moon do move relative to each other and the stars, and quickly, from our point of view. They change their positions, appear to move closer together and farther apart, and sometimes pass by each other in the sky coming to conjunction. Of all of the pleasures of stargazing, seeing this movement of our nearest neighbors is one of the greatest.
Planetary conjunction of Venus and Jupiter on May 22, 2024, as seen by SOHO’s LASCO C3 imagery equipment aboard the spacecraft. Image via NOAA.
Bottom line: A conjunction is when two objects share the same right ascension. It means two objects are close on our sky’s dome. You hear a specific date for conjunctions. But, practically speaking, two objects near conjunction are near each other for some days. The Jupiter-Mercury conjunction of August 15 is the next planetary conjunction. Look for them before sunrise.
This is going to be a tough one! But give it a try if you have a clear view to the east before sunrise on the mornings around August 15. How long before? Not long. You’ll have to wait for bright morning twilight – that is, until shortly before sunrise – to see Jupiter ascend over your eastern horizon. You might catch it, because Jupiter itself is bright! Mercury is fainter. But it’ll be only about one full moon width from Jupiter. Use binoculars, if you have them, to scan near the eastern horizon. After their eye-catching close encounter, Jupiter will climb higher each day in the eastern predawn sky. But Mercury will soon slip away. Chart via EarthSky.
Jupiter-Mercury conjunction August 15, 2026
Here’s a binocular view of Mercury and Jupiter in the morning twilight on August 15. Binoculars will make the planets much easier to see! Both Jupiter and Mercury will float among the stars of Cancer the Crab. At their closest, they’ll be 0.6 degree apart. So if you extend your pinky at arm’s length, you’ll be able to hide both the planets behind it. Don’t miss this conjunction if your sky allows! Chart via EarthSky.
What’s a conjunction?
Astronomers use the word conjunction to describe meetings of planets, stars and other objects in the night sky. The word conjunction comes from Latin, meaning to join together. In modern English language, conjunctions relate to clauses brought together with words like and. In astronomy, conjunctions relate to two or more objects brought together in the sky.
Technically speaking, objects are said to be in conjunction when they have the same right ascension – sort of like celestial longitude – on our sky’s dome.
Practically speaking, objects in conjunction will likely be visible near each other for some days.
Sometimes one of these objects in a conjunction is the sun, so the conjunction can’t be seen. But other conjunctions – between stars, our moon and the planets – can be truly spectacular.
Here’s what the word “conjunction” means to astronomers. You have to think of the whole sky as being divided up into a grid system, like longitude and latitude on Earth. Astronomers call the longitudinal component right ascension. And they call the latitudinal component declination. Technically speaking, 2 objects are said to be in conjunction when they have the same right ascension on our sky’s dome. And that’s what this illustration is showing. It’s showing you exactly what astronomers mean when they say the word conjunction.
We can’t see an inferior conjunction
An inferior conjunction is when an object passes between us and the sun. Any object that orbits the sun closer than Earth does might pass through inferior conjunction from time to time. That is assuming its orbit lies more or less close to the ecliptic.
Usually, though, when astronomers speak of an inferior conjunction, they’re talking about Venus or Mercury, which orbit between Earth and the sun. Astronomers sometimes refer to Venus and Mercury as inferior planets. When they’re at or near inferior conjunction, we generally can’t see them. They’re hidden in the sun’s glare. Occasionally, though, Venus or Mercury at inferior conjunction can be seen to transit across the sun’s disk.
We shouldn’t forget the moon here. It passes between Earth and the sun at new moon once each month. Therefore it would be correct, if a little unusual, to say that the moon is at inferior conjunction when it’s at its new phase.
This chart uses the orbit of Venus to show the the points of inferior and superior conjunction. Venus was last at inferior conjunction on March 23, 2025, and will be in that position again on October 24, 2026. It was last at superior conjunction on January 6, 2026, and will be in that position again on August 11, 2027. Chart via EarthSky.
We can’t see a superior conjunction either
A superior conjunction is when an object passes behind the sun from our point of view. Look at Venus’ orbit in the diagram above. Half of its conjunctions with the sun – when they come together on our sky’s dome – are inferior conjunctions. And half are superior conjunctions. It’s fun to imagine the inferior planets on an endless cycle of passing in front of the sun, as seen from Earth, then behind it, and back again, like squirrels running around a tree.
Meanwhile, the superior planets – or planets farther from the sun than Earth – can never be at inferior conjunction. Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune can never pass between us and the sun. So the superior planets only have superior conjunctions.
But other conjunctions can look beautiful
The most common – and most exciting – type of conjunction doesn’t involve the sun. Any time two objects pass each other on the sky’s dome, they’re said to be at conjunction. This sort of conjunction – maybe between two planets, or a planet and a star, or a star and the moon – happens multiple times every month. They are beautiful. The view can stop you in your tracks.
For example, if you were fortunate enough to have looked at the moon on July 21, 1969, the day that Neil Armstrong took the first step on the moon’s Sea of Tranquility, you’d have seen the moon in conjunction with Spica, the brightest star in the constellation Virgo. They were only about 2 degrees apart that night. That’s a bit more than the width of your index finger held out at arm’s length.
There are always a few particularly good conjunctions every year. On June 8-9, 2026, we were treated to a spectacular conjunction between bright planets Venus and Jupiter, as you can see below. Click here to see a full gallery of Venus-Jupiter conjunction photos captured by members of the EarthSky community.
Watch for and enjoy conjunctions
People often think about the night sky as being permanent and unchanging, at least on a human scale. If you watch the skies often, though, you’ve surely noticed that’s not true. The stars don’t move relative to each other, but they do move across the sky over the course of a single night, as Earth spins under the sky. And, from one night to the next, each star rises and sets four minutes earlier each day, as Earth moves around the sun.
Once you’ve found the ecliptic – the sun’s path across the sky – you can see where the real action is. Because they are relatively close to us, the planets and moon do move relative to each other and the stars, and quickly, from our point of view. They change their positions, appear to move closer together and farther apart, and sometimes pass by each other in the sky coming to conjunction. Of all of the pleasures of stargazing, seeing this movement of our nearest neighbors is one of the greatest.
Planetary conjunction of Venus and Jupiter on May 22, 2024, as seen by SOHO’s LASCO C3 imagery equipment aboard the spacecraft. Image via NOAA.
Bottom line: A conjunction is when two objects share the same right ascension. It means two objects are close on our sky’s dome. You hear a specific date for conjunctions. But, practically speaking, two objects near conjunction are near each other for some days. The Jupiter-Mercury conjunction of August 15 is the next planetary conjunction. Look for them before sunrise.
View larger. | Artist’s representation of a large black triangular craft with a red light at each corner. Observers reported this sighting over a U.S. military base near Colorado Springs, Colorado, in October 2023. See more of the latest Pentagon UAP files below. Image via DoD.
The U.S. Pentagon released the 5th batch of its UAP files on August 7, 2026.
The release contains a mix of video, image and document files. There are 41 new files in all, and 16 are videos, 22 are documents and three are images.
The release is part of a continuing rollout of formerly classified files, every couple or few weeks. So far, there’s been no “smoking gun” to show that alien craft are visiting Earth. But the files are interesting!
The U.S. Pentagon released its 1st batch of declassified UAP/UFO materials on May 8, 2026. And now it has just made public batch 5. There are 41 new files in all in batch 5, including 16 videos, 22 documents and three images. There are no audio files this time around.
The records come from the Pentagon, FBI, CIA, State Department and Executive Office of the President.
And as usual, Sean Parnell, Assistant to the Secretary of War for Public Affairs and Chief Pentagon Spokesman, said in a statement:
Today, the Department of War is publishing the 5th release of declassified and historical Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena (UAP) files as part of the Presidential Unsealing and Reporting System for UAP Encounters (PURSUE). The collection continues to be housed on WAR.GOV/UFO, and the Department will release additional files on a rolling basis.
The Department of War and our agency partners are actively working on the next release of UAP files. The fifth release of UAP files is available now on WAR.GOV/UFO
For context, the Pentagon released a 2nd batch on May 22, a 3rd batch on June 12 and the 4th batch on July 10, all in 2026.
As has been the pattern for these releases, they are a mixed bag of old and previously known material, and newer material. Do the releases prove aliens exist, or that alien craft are visiting Earth? Not so far.
The @DeptofWar released more UAP case files, reinforcing our commitment under PURSUE to increase transparency by responsibly releasing information. We remain focused on rigorous analysis and keeping the public informed. To view Release 5: https://t.co/XtJxorypDV
— All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office (@DoW_AARO) August 7, 2026
This video from the United States Central Command shows a small dark object making erratic movements over the Gulf of Oman on September 8, 2021. Video via DoD (Public Domain)
Erratic and hovering orbs in Gulf of Oman
The batch 5 videos are again mostly the grainy FLIR footage from military platforms including aircraft. And some others are cellphone videos of computer screens on a warship.
The cellphone videos come from a supposed “encounter” on September 8, 2021, over the Gulf of Oman by Special Operations forces on an AC-130J gunship. Six of the newly-released videos are from this incident. One of the videos shows a small dark object making erratic movements.
Plus, one of the documents is an intelligence report that accompanies the videos. It noted that the personnel onboard the ship:
… observed approximately 25 instances of UAPs while conducting a live fire exercise in the Gulf of Oman.
The report also stated:
The UAPs were observed as cold orbs flying at lower altitudes between 250 to 1,300 MPH in different formations as well as maneuvering aggressively. UAPs also appeared to react to the aircraft firing its main cannon.
The report also says the orbs were about 4 feet (1.2 meters) in diameter. After a mission aircraft dropped a water-activated flare, used as a target, two of the orbs were said to “hover” over it. When the aircraft fired its cannon at the flare, the two orbs reportedly flew away rapidly, without changing altitude.
And indeed, the Pentagon’s AARO office has said for the past few years now that “small metallic orbs” are the most common type of UAP currently being reported by military personnel. That’s still true in its latest annual report for 2025.
This video from somewhere in the Middle East shows a small orb object moving over a residential area on January 1, 2025. Video via DoD (Public Domain).
More orbs in the Middle East
Another video (in various camera modes) shows an orb moving over a residential area somewhere in the Middle East on January 1, 2025. Because of the changing camera modes, the object appears white in some of the footage and dark in other parts of the footage.
Montana and Utah orbs
One of the newly released documents is a memorandum of an analysis by the U.S. Naval Photographic Interpretation Center of two well-known cases from Montana and Tremonton, Utah in 1950 and 1952, respectively. The document itself is from 1953.
The Utah video shows a cluster of small objects flying in formation. Their description was of “bright, silvery reflective disks resembling two pie pans inverted together.” The U.S. Navy Photo Interpretation Center analyzed the film for over 1,000 hours. It concluded the objects were “self-luminous, intelligently controlled and not birds, balloons or standard aircraft.”
In the Montana video, two similar kinds of objects, either spherical or disk-shaped, are seen moving together and spinning or rotating. They move in a steady line behind a water tower.
The memorandum noted that:
The Center assessed, generally, that the objects depicted in the film demonstrated characteristics that were inconsistent with those of natural phenomena or commonly known aerospace technologies.
.
And it also said that as the brightness of the objects increased, so did their apparent size.
View larger. | Illustration of large black triangular craft seen over Bagram Air Force Base in Afghanistan in June 2002. Image via DoD (Public Domain).
Colorado black triangle
Another interesting case was of a black triangular craft with a red light at each corner seen near a U.S. military base in Colorado Springs, Colorado, in October 2023. See the image at the top of this article.
In fact, black triangles have been one of the most common types of objects described in UAP lore for several decades.
Crash with deceased occupant in Brazil?
One of the more interesting documents is a Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) wire report from November 9, 1963. It reported a possible large metal sphere with a dead occupant wearing a “spacesuit” in Conde, Bahia, Brazil.
Another memo from this release, however, from the American Consulate in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, states that the report was unsubstantiated.
TIME magazine highlights UAP
TIME magazine also currently has a cover story on UAP. It’s titled ‘America Is Finally Taking Extraterrestrials Seriously.’ The cover itself says ‘The New Case for Aliens.’
Overall, it’s a good, balanced article, with coverage of many of the past and recent issues in the UAP topic, and input from witnesses, proponents and skeptics.
Bottom line: The 5th batch of the Pentagon UAP files was released on August 7, 2026. The videos, documents and images include reports of more orbs, triangles and more.
View larger. | Artist’s representation of a large black triangular craft with a red light at each corner. Observers reported this sighting over a U.S. military base near Colorado Springs, Colorado, in October 2023. See more of the latest Pentagon UAP files below. Image via DoD.
The U.S. Pentagon released the 5th batch of its UAP files on August 7, 2026.
The release contains a mix of video, image and document files. There are 41 new files in all, and 16 are videos, 22 are documents and three are images.
The release is part of a continuing rollout of formerly classified files, every couple or few weeks. So far, there’s been no “smoking gun” to show that alien craft are visiting Earth. But the files are interesting!
The U.S. Pentagon released its 1st batch of declassified UAP/UFO materials on May 8, 2026. And now it has just made public batch 5. There are 41 new files in all in batch 5, including 16 videos, 22 documents and three images. There are no audio files this time around.
The records come from the Pentagon, FBI, CIA, State Department and Executive Office of the President.
And as usual, Sean Parnell, Assistant to the Secretary of War for Public Affairs and Chief Pentagon Spokesman, said in a statement:
Today, the Department of War is publishing the 5th release of declassified and historical Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena (UAP) files as part of the Presidential Unsealing and Reporting System for UAP Encounters (PURSUE). The collection continues to be housed on WAR.GOV/UFO, and the Department will release additional files on a rolling basis.
The Department of War and our agency partners are actively working on the next release of UAP files. The fifth release of UAP files is available now on WAR.GOV/UFO
For context, the Pentagon released a 2nd batch on May 22, a 3rd batch on June 12 and the 4th batch on July 10, all in 2026.
As has been the pattern for these releases, they are a mixed bag of old and previously known material, and newer material. Do the releases prove aliens exist, or that alien craft are visiting Earth? Not so far.
The @DeptofWar released more UAP case files, reinforcing our commitment under PURSUE to increase transparency by responsibly releasing information. We remain focused on rigorous analysis and keeping the public informed. To view Release 5: https://t.co/XtJxorypDV
— All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office (@DoW_AARO) August 7, 2026
This video from the United States Central Command shows a small dark object making erratic movements over the Gulf of Oman on September 8, 2021. Video via DoD (Public Domain)
Erratic and hovering orbs in Gulf of Oman
The batch 5 videos are again mostly the grainy FLIR footage from military platforms including aircraft. And some others are cellphone videos of computer screens on a warship.
The cellphone videos come from a supposed “encounter” on September 8, 2021, over the Gulf of Oman by Special Operations forces on an AC-130J gunship. Six of the newly-released videos are from this incident. One of the videos shows a small dark object making erratic movements.
Plus, one of the documents is an intelligence report that accompanies the videos. It noted that the personnel onboard the ship:
… observed approximately 25 instances of UAPs while conducting a live fire exercise in the Gulf of Oman.
The report also stated:
The UAPs were observed as cold orbs flying at lower altitudes between 250 to 1,300 MPH in different formations as well as maneuvering aggressively. UAPs also appeared to react to the aircraft firing its main cannon.
The report also says the orbs were about 4 feet (1.2 meters) in diameter. After a mission aircraft dropped a water-activated flare, used as a target, two of the orbs were said to “hover” over it. When the aircraft fired its cannon at the flare, the two orbs reportedly flew away rapidly, without changing altitude.
And indeed, the Pentagon’s AARO office has said for the past few years now that “small metallic orbs” are the most common type of UAP currently being reported by military personnel. That’s still true in its latest annual report for 2025.
This video from somewhere in the Middle East shows a small orb object moving over a residential area on January 1, 2025. Video via DoD (Public Domain).
More orbs in the Middle East
Another video (in various camera modes) shows an orb moving over a residential area somewhere in the Middle East on January 1, 2025. Because of the changing camera modes, the object appears white in some of the footage and dark in other parts of the footage.
Montana and Utah orbs
One of the newly released documents is a memorandum of an analysis by the U.S. Naval Photographic Interpretation Center of two well-known cases from Montana and Tremonton, Utah in 1950 and 1952, respectively. The document itself is from 1953.
The Utah video shows a cluster of small objects flying in formation. Their description was of “bright, silvery reflective disks resembling two pie pans inverted together.” The U.S. Navy Photo Interpretation Center analyzed the film for over 1,000 hours. It concluded the objects were “self-luminous, intelligently controlled and not birds, balloons or standard aircraft.”
In the Montana video, two similar kinds of objects, either spherical or disk-shaped, are seen moving together and spinning or rotating. They move in a steady line behind a water tower.
The memorandum noted that:
The Center assessed, generally, that the objects depicted in the film demonstrated characteristics that were inconsistent with those of natural phenomena or commonly known aerospace technologies.
.
And it also said that as the brightness of the objects increased, so did their apparent size.
View larger. | Illustration of large black triangular craft seen over Bagram Air Force Base in Afghanistan in June 2002. Image via DoD (Public Domain).
Colorado black triangle
Another interesting case was of a black triangular craft with a red light at each corner seen near a U.S. military base in Colorado Springs, Colorado, in October 2023. See the image at the top of this article.
In fact, black triangles have been one of the most common types of objects described in UAP lore for several decades.
Crash with deceased occupant in Brazil?
One of the more interesting documents is a Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) wire report from November 9, 1963. It reported a possible large metal sphere with a dead occupant wearing a “spacesuit” in Conde, Bahia, Brazil.
Another memo from this release, however, from the American Consulate in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, states that the report was unsubstantiated.
TIME magazine highlights UAP
TIME magazine also currently has a cover story on UAP. It’s titled ‘America Is Finally Taking Extraterrestrials Seriously.’ The cover itself says ‘The New Case for Aliens.’
Overall, it’s a good, balanced article, with coverage of many of the past and recent issues in the UAP topic, and input from witnesses, proponents and skeptics.
Bottom line: The 5th batch of the Pentagon UAP files was released on August 7, 2026. The videos, documents and images include reports of more orbs, triangles and more.
How do giant trees manage to transport water from their roots to their leaves? Here’s a 187-foot (57-meter) tall dipterocarp tree (the tallest flowering trees in the world). Image via Palasiah Jotan. Used with permission.
For decades, scientists thought height would eventually become a disadvantage for the world’s tallest trees. The farther water had to travel from roots to leaves, the harder it seemed to move it all the way to the canopy. But a team of researchers from the University of Exeter and Cardiff University has discovered that giant tropical trees have evolved ways to overcome this challenge, even when they grow taller than 230 feet (70 meters).
The researchers published their findings in the peer-reviewed journal Science on July 2, 2026.
When height seemed like a limit
Trees do not have a heart or a pump to move water from their roots to their leaves. Instead, they rely on thousands of tiny vessels running through their trunks. As water evaporates from leaves, it creates a pulling force that draws water upwards from the roots.
For a tree several meters tall, this process already requires a remarkable transport system. For a giant tree reaching more than 230 feet (70 meters) into the canopy, the challenge becomes far greater. Water must travel that entire distance through the trunk, and even small disruptions in this system can affect the tree’s ability to function and grow.
This led scientists to think that height placed a natural limit on tree growth. According to this theory, the tallest trees should struggle to transport water efficiently, reducing their ability to photosynthesize and grow. Their water transport systems should also make them more vulnerable during droughts.
However, the world’s tallest flowering trees (dipterocarp trees) appear to have developed ways to overcome these physical challenges. Professor Lucy Rowland from the University of Exeter explained:
Trees contain lots of thin, hollow vessels and they suck water upwards by creating low pressure at the top. These vessels have evolved intricate adaptations that can maintain the water in liquid form, even under the extreme low pressures required to move to the top of trees which can reach over 80 metres [262 feet].
The taller the tree, the greater the hydraulic challenge, or so scientists thought … Giant dipterocarps appear to have found a way around it. Image via Palasiah Jotan. Used with permission.
How giant trees overcome the challenge of height
To understand how these trees manage such extraordinary sizes, researchers from the University of Exeter and Cardiff University studied dipterocarp trees in Malaysian Borneo. The trees ranged from 23 to 233 feet (7 to 71 meters) tall.
The team measured different traits related to water transport at multiple points along each tree. They also examined trunk growth rates before, during and after the severe El Niño drought period of 2023–2024.
The researchers found that taller trees compensate for the challenges of their size in several ways.
Their water-conducting vessels become wider closer to the ground, helping move water more effectively through the trunk. Their leaves also adapt to tolerate greater levels of water stress before they begin to wilt.
Together, these adjustments allow giant dipterocarps to maintain an efficient water transport system. This works despite the enormous distance between their roots and their highest branches. Rowland said:
Our results challenge this by showing that the hydraulic systems of very tall dipterocarp trees are perfectly evolved for their height, and should not suffer more than small dipterocarp trees exposed to the same drought conditions.
In the Bornean rainforest, researchers studied trees ranging from 23 to 233 feet (7 to 71 meters) tall to uncover how their hydraulic systems adapt to extreme heights. Here’s a climber measuring the stem diameter at the upper trunk of a dipterocarp tree. Video via Masliadi bin Asri. Used with permission.
A drought tested an old prediction
The researchers also investigated whether extreme height actually made these trees less resilient when water became scarce.
If the traditional theory was correct, the tallest trees should have experienced a greater decline in growth than smaller trees during the El Niño drought.
However, the team found no height-related loss in growth. The tallest trees did not show a greater disadvantage simply because they were larger.
The finding does not mean tropical forests are safe from climate change or that giant trees face no threats. Instead, it suggests that height alone does not make these trees more vulnerable to drought than smaller trees exposed to the same conditions.
Why giant trees matter for the climate
The importance of these findings goes far beyond understanding how trees move water.
Trees play a central role in the global carbon cycle. Through photosynthesis, they absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and use that carbon to build their trunks, branches, leaves and roots.
Beyond adding new growth, trees continue to store carbon inside their living tissues throughout their lives. A giant tree can therefore act as a long-term carbon reservoir, keeping carbon locked away for decades or even centuries.
When a large tree dies, burns or decomposes, some of that stored carbon can return to the atmosphere as CO2, contributing to the greenhouse effect. This is why protecting the world’s largest trees matters not only for biodiversity, but also for the climate. Paulo Bittencourt from Cardiff University said:
Understanding tall trees is vital because the tallest 1% of trees store more than half of above-ground carbon in forests.
The tallest trees are especially important because their size allows them to store enormous amounts of carbon. Losing these giants would not only affect forest ecosystems but could also reduce one of nature’s most effective ways of keeping carbon out of the atmosphere.
Researchers found that extreme height did not make giant trees more vulnerable to drought. Their enormous size also makes them important long-term carbon stores in tropical forests. Here, a tree climber works in the canopy of a dipterocarp tree during sample collection. Video via Palasiah Jotan. Used with permission.
Protecting the giants of Borneo
Dipterocarp species dominate the rainforests of Southeast Asia and include some of the tallest flowering trees on Earth. These forests are not only home to remarkable giants but also support some of the planet’s richest ecosystems.
The study shows that extreme height does not make these trees as vulnerable to drought as scientists once thought. However, this resilience does not reduce the need to protect them. Protecting these forests matters because they store vast amounts of carbon and provide habitat for countless species.
Palasiah Jotan, a Malaysian PhD researcher and co-author of the study, hopes these findings will strengthen efforts to protect Borneo’s rainforests. The researchers also say more work is needed to understand whether other tall tree species have evolved similar adaptations.
For now, the study challenges a decades-old assumption: reaching extreme heights does not necessarily make trees weaker. Instead, these forest giants appear to have evolved sophisticated ways to thrive at the limits of plant growth.
This is co-author Palasiah Jotan climbing a dipterocarp tree. Borneo’s giant dipterocarps are more than the tallest trees in the forest: they are vital carbon stores and provide habitat for countless species. Their loss would be felt far beyond the forest where they grow. Image via Arne Scheire. Used with permission.
Bottom line: Giant trees have evolved remarkable adaptations that allow them to reach extreme heights while maintaining efficient water transport.
How do giant trees manage to transport water from their roots to their leaves? Here’s a 187-foot (57-meter) tall dipterocarp tree (the tallest flowering trees in the world). Image via Palasiah Jotan. Used with permission.
For decades, scientists thought height would eventually become a disadvantage for the world’s tallest trees. The farther water had to travel from roots to leaves, the harder it seemed to move it all the way to the canopy. But a team of researchers from the University of Exeter and Cardiff University has discovered that giant tropical trees have evolved ways to overcome this challenge, even when they grow taller than 230 feet (70 meters).
The researchers published their findings in the peer-reviewed journal Science on July 2, 2026.
When height seemed like a limit
Trees do not have a heart or a pump to move water from their roots to their leaves. Instead, they rely on thousands of tiny vessels running through their trunks. As water evaporates from leaves, it creates a pulling force that draws water upwards from the roots.
For a tree several meters tall, this process already requires a remarkable transport system. For a giant tree reaching more than 230 feet (70 meters) into the canopy, the challenge becomes far greater. Water must travel that entire distance through the trunk, and even small disruptions in this system can affect the tree’s ability to function and grow.
This led scientists to think that height placed a natural limit on tree growth. According to this theory, the tallest trees should struggle to transport water efficiently, reducing their ability to photosynthesize and grow. Their water transport systems should also make them more vulnerable during droughts.
However, the world’s tallest flowering trees (dipterocarp trees) appear to have developed ways to overcome these physical challenges. Professor Lucy Rowland from the University of Exeter explained:
Trees contain lots of thin, hollow vessels and they suck water upwards by creating low pressure at the top. These vessels have evolved intricate adaptations that can maintain the water in liquid form, even under the extreme low pressures required to move to the top of trees which can reach over 80 metres [262 feet].
The taller the tree, the greater the hydraulic challenge, or so scientists thought … Giant dipterocarps appear to have found a way around it. Image via Palasiah Jotan. Used with permission.
How giant trees overcome the challenge of height
To understand how these trees manage such extraordinary sizes, researchers from the University of Exeter and Cardiff University studied dipterocarp trees in Malaysian Borneo. The trees ranged from 23 to 233 feet (7 to 71 meters) tall.
The team measured different traits related to water transport at multiple points along each tree. They also examined trunk growth rates before, during and after the severe El Niño drought period of 2023–2024.
The researchers found that taller trees compensate for the challenges of their size in several ways.
Their water-conducting vessels become wider closer to the ground, helping move water more effectively through the trunk. Their leaves also adapt to tolerate greater levels of water stress before they begin to wilt.
Together, these adjustments allow giant dipterocarps to maintain an efficient water transport system. This works despite the enormous distance between their roots and their highest branches. Rowland said:
Our results challenge this by showing that the hydraulic systems of very tall dipterocarp trees are perfectly evolved for their height, and should not suffer more than small dipterocarp trees exposed to the same drought conditions.
In the Bornean rainforest, researchers studied trees ranging from 23 to 233 feet (7 to 71 meters) tall to uncover how their hydraulic systems adapt to extreme heights. Here’s a climber measuring the stem diameter at the upper trunk of a dipterocarp tree. Video via Masliadi bin Asri. Used with permission.
A drought tested an old prediction
The researchers also investigated whether extreme height actually made these trees less resilient when water became scarce.
If the traditional theory was correct, the tallest trees should have experienced a greater decline in growth than smaller trees during the El Niño drought.
However, the team found no height-related loss in growth. The tallest trees did not show a greater disadvantage simply because they were larger.
The finding does not mean tropical forests are safe from climate change or that giant trees face no threats. Instead, it suggests that height alone does not make these trees more vulnerable to drought than smaller trees exposed to the same conditions.
Why giant trees matter for the climate
The importance of these findings goes far beyond understanding how trees move water.
Trees play a central role in the global carbon cycle. Through photosynthesis, they absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and use that carbon to build their trunks, branches, leaves and roots.
Beyond adding new growth, trees continue to store carbon inside their living tissues throughout their lives. A giant tree can therefore act as a long-term carbon reservoir, keeping carbon locked away for decades or even centuries.
When a large tree dies, burns or decomposes, some of that stored carbon can return to the atmosphere as CO2, contributing to the greenhouse effect. This is why protecting the world’s largest trees matters not only for biodiversity, but also for the climate. Paulo Bittencourt from Cardiff University said:
Understanding tall trees is vital because the tallest 1% of trees store more than half of above-ground carbon in forests.
The tallest trees are especially important because their size allows them to store enormous amounts of carbon. Losing these giants would not only affect forest ecosystems but could also reduce one of nature’s most effective ways of keeping carbon out of the atmosphere.
Researchers found that extreme height did not make giant trees more vulnerable to drought. Their enormous size also makes them important long-term carbon stores in tropical forests. Here, a tree climber works in the canopy of a dipterocarp tree during sample collection. Video via Palasiah Jotan. Used with permission.
Protecting the giants of Borneo
Dipterocarp species dominate the rainforests of Southeast Asia and include some of the tallest flowering trees on Earth. These forests are not only home to remarkable giants but also support some of the planet’s richest ecosystems.
The study shows that extreme height does not make these trees as vulnerable to drought as scientists once thought. However, this resilience does not reduce the need to protect them. Protecting these forests matters because they store vast amounts of carbon and provide habitat for countless species.
Palasiah Jotan, a Malaysian PhD researcher and co-author of the study, hopes these findings will strengthen efforts to protect Borneo’s rainforests. The researchers also say more work is needed to understand whether other tall tree species have evolved similar adaptations.
For now, the study challenges a decades-old assumption: reaching extreme heights does not necessarily make trees weaker. Instead, these forest giants appear to have evolved sophisticated ways to thrive at the limits of plant growth.
This is co-author Palasiah Jotan climbing a dipterocarp tree. Borneo’s giant dipterocarps are more than the tallest trees in the forest: they are vital carbon stores and provide habitat for countless species. Their loss would be felt far beyond the forest where they grow. Image via Arne Scheire. Used with permission.
Bottom line: Giant trees have evolved remarkable adaptations that allow them to reach extreme heights while maintaining efficient water transport.
Scientists used the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope – on the summit of the Haleakal? volcano on the island of Maui, Hawaii – to obtain this image of the sun. It’s the highest-resolution images of the sun’s surface (photosphere) yet. In the process they also discovered Kelvin-Helmholtz instability on the sun’s surface. Video via NSO.
The world’s most powerful solar telescope – the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope in Hawaii – combined with computer simulations to find the signature of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability.
It happens when 2 fluid or gas layers slide past each, creating friction (or “shear”) along their boundary. The curling, vortex patterns resembling breaking ocean waves or wind-driven clouds on Earth.
The discovery helps reveal the fundamental physics of the sun and other stars, these scientists say. It also can help people prepare for solar bursts that can affect satellites, power grids and other earthly technology.
On August 5, 2026, the U.S. National Science Foundation National Solar Observatory (NSF NSO) announced what they said is a groundbreaking discovery in the field of solar physics. They said it could fundamentally change how we understand the physical mechanisms driving solar activity and its impacts on life on Earth.
A team of international researchers has discovered Kelvin-Helmholtz instability in the form of small, swirling, whirlpool-like patterns on the surface of the sun (the photosphere).
The researchers from the National Solar Observatory, the NCAR High Altitude Observatory , and the German Max Planck Institut für Sonnensystemforschung published their study in the journal Nature on August 5, 2026.
And the research is based on data collected with the world’s largest solar telescope, the NSF Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope. It’s built and operated by the National Solar Observatory on the island of Maui, Hawaii.
Ground-breaking new images
The time-lapse video (above) and images released reveal a solar landscape unlike any seen before.
They uncover small-scale and dynamic swirls everywhere at the edges of magnetic areas. This allowed for the unambiguous identification of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability in the photosphere.
And it provides the first experimental confirmation of a phenomenon that has long been predicted by theory. David Boboltz, Deputy Director at the National Solar Observatory, said:
We believe that the discovery of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability in the solar photosphere, backed up by analysis of numerical simulations, is a major step forward in our understanding of the dynamics and evolution of solar and stellar plasma, and will serve as a basis for future discoveries.
The highest-resolution image of the sun’s surface (photosphere) ever captured. The Inouye Solar Telescope took this image at 416 nm. It reveals deformed boundaries of magnetic elements and ultra-fine scale stripes. Both are associated with Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. Image via NSF/NSO/AURA/MPS.
An explanation of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability
An effect caused by fluid motion, KHI occurs when two fluids slide past each other at different velocities. This creates a “shear” at the interface. And it causes small disturbances to grow into striking, wave-like or spiraling vortices that look like breaking ocean waves.
Since its original formulation by Lord Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz around 1870, KHI has been observed and investigated across many areas of physics, including fluid dynamics, meteorology, oceanography, heliosphysics, and astrophysics. We can observe the instability at a variety of scales. This includes small lake and ocean waves (in windy conditions) and cloud formations on Earth to the atmospheres of gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn. And we can even see the interaction of the solar wind with planetary magnetospheres within our solar system.
The sun’s explosive events
The swirling vortices of magnetic solar plasma have become an area of increased interest for solar physicists. They could be an effective source of free magnetic energy. This energy powers major solar activity. That includes explosive events from tiny nano-flares to massive flares, jets and coronal mass ejections. These are the main contributors to space weather. And they can severely disrupt our modern technological infrastructure, including power grids, satellites, GPS navigation and global communications.
The leading theory on how the sun builds up magnetic energy is called flux braiding. As magnetic field lines twist around each other – like braiding hair – they create a tense, unstable setup. When that tension is rapidly released, the tangled magnetic lines snap, cross over each other and reconnect in new shapes (a process called magnetic reconnection). This sudden rearrangement releases a burst of energy as the system settles into a calmer, lower-energy state.
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability may drive the activity
What scientists don’t fully understand yet is what causes the twisting and braiding to happen in the first place. This new discovery – those small swirling patterns (from the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability) – might be part of the answer. Since the swirls seem to be happening constantly and everywhere on the sun’s surface where there is a strong enough magnetic field, they could be the everyday “engine” that keeps twisting the magnetic field lines and setting the whole process in motion.
Friedrich Wöger, Senior Scientist at the National Solar Observatory, said:
We are only at the beginning of recognizing the wide-reaching impact the discovery of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability has on our understanding of the connection between the magnetized plasma motion and the energy transport and release into the upper solar atmosphere.
Inouye Solar Telescope data obtained at the wavelength 416 nm, with 3 zoomed regions. Three selected close-up areas show the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability on the sun. Video via NSF/NSO/AURA/MPS.
Inouye observations, simulations and theory align
In their Nature paper, the team analyzed and compared the high-resolution Inouye observations with computer simulations of the solar photosphere created with a highly specialized code built and maintained by international teams including HAO and MPS (MPS/University of Chicago Radiative MHD, or “MURaM”).
These computer simulations provided by HAO are built using basic physics equations. The equations describe what’s happening in the sun’s atmosphere and are an important tool in the interpretation of scientific data. The simulations allow the scientists to “see” things that are hard or impossible to measure directly by observation. It gives insight into processes that would otherwise stay hidden.
Combination of data from the NASA/SDO satellite, the NSF Inouye Solar Telescope VBI instrument, the MPS camera and the HAO MuRAM simulation. This demonstrates the high detail from the Inouye Solar Telescope. In the last part of the movie, the HAO MURaM simulation data is overlaid for both the synthesized intensity and the vertical magnetic field component that is finally displayed in three dimensions. Video via NSF/NSO/AURA/MPS/HAO/NASA/SDO/AIA.
Observations meet simulations
In the case of this work, the scientists found dozens of vortex-like structures along the edges of magnetic areas both in the observations and simulations. And they had strikingly similar characteristics and dynamics. For example, the average distance between vortices, known as the “instability wavelength,” ranged between 50–65 km in both cases. The study shows that the sun’s constantly bubbling surface, or granulation, interacts with magnetic structures to create areas where neighboring layers move at different speeds. And that provides the conditions necessary to trigger KHI.
Matthias Rempel, Senior Scientist at the High Altitude Observatory, said:
It is very exciting to see that the highest-resolution observations of the solar photosphere revealed a new dynamical regime in the form of KH vortices at the edges of magnetic field concentrations. These observations also provide the highest resolution validation of solar magnetohydrodynamic simulations to date, and the agreement in physical details is impressive.
The team’s advanced analyses of the Inouye observations and the computer simulations, combined with their agreement with analytical theory, led to the conclusion that the swirling vortices, and the fast-moving, finest-scale dark stripes (“striations”), found in both the observations and simulations are without a doubt produced by KHI.
A side-by-side comparison of a real observation from the Inouye Solar Telescope (top left) and a synthetic image from computer simulations (top right). The remarkable agreement between the 2 allows scientists to confirm the origin of the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability. This is a universal physical phenomenon that occurs when adjacent layers of fluid or gas move at different speeds. It creates swirling patterns at their interface. A simulated map of the sun’s surface magnetic field (bottom right) confirms that these processes physically bend and deform the boundaries of the magnetic elements. Image via NSF/NSO/AURA/HAO.
Implications for the solar atmosphere and coronal heating mystery
Thomas Rimmele, Chief Technologist at the National Solar Observatory, said:
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability is likely a mechanism that contributes to the heating of the outer atmosphere and is part of the solution of the longstanding enigma of why stars have a million-degrees-Kelvin-hot corona.
The data also shows that this swirling effect (KHI) efficiently mixes magnetized and non-magnetized plasma on the sun’s surface. It enhances the spreading out or diffusion of magnetic fields throughout the solar atmosphere. The diffusion resulting from the KHI is a key factor scientists use when building models to predict how magnetic activity changes over time. This is not just for our sun, but for other stars too.
David Kuridze, Astronomer at the National Solar Observatory, said:
The sun’s magnetic field is generated by dynamo processes that act like giant cosmic engines that turn the star’s rotational energy into magnetic fields. However, because the solar magnetic cycle is only 11 years, a remarkably rapid timescale in cosmic terms, the generated magnetic flux must dissipate efficiently. Current models struggle to explain this rapid diffusion. The Kelvin-Helmholtz instability we discovered in the solar photosphere can act as a key source of this missing magnetic diffusion.
Looking ahead
Scientists are now moving toward the next phase of analysis. This phase includes using computer programs that can automatically spot and study these swirling patterns. And they are aided by the high resolution data from the Inouye Solar Telescope.
This next phase of research will help in two main ways. It’ll show scientists more about how much energy these KHIs can carry up into the sun’s higher atmosphere, where it helps heat things up. And it’ll also help scientists figure out just how much they affect the way magnetic fields spread out in the lower parts of the sun’s atmosphere.
Jacqueline Keane, NSF Program Director for the National Solar Observatory, said:
To understand the dynamic space weather that affects Earth, we have to see the small-scale processes driving it. For decades, seeing these vortices at such tiny scales remained elusive. By pairing a massive four-meter mirror with state-of-the-art optics and instruments, the NSF Inouye Solar Telescope delivers the resolving power needed to reveal these ultrafine details for the first time, enabling discoveries that were once beyond our reach.
Bottom line: The Inouye Solar Telescope has captured the highest-resolution images of the sun’s surface yet. These images show Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities, which may help explain why the sun’s surface gets so hot and explosive.
Scientists used the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope – on the summit of the Haleakal? volcano on the island of Maui, Hawaii – to obtain this image of the sun. It’s the highest-resolution images of the sun’s surface (photosphere) yet. In the process they also discovered Kelvin-Helmholtz instability on the sun’s surface. Video via NSO.
The world’s most powerful solar telescope – the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope in Hawaii – combined with computer simulations to find the signature of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability.
It happens when 2 fluid or gas layers slide past each, creating friction (or “shear”) along their boundary. The curling, vortex patterns resembling breaking ocean waves or wind-driven clouds on Earth.
The discovery helps reveal the fundamental physics of the sun and other stars, these scientists say. It also can help people prepare for solar bursts that can affect satellites, power grids and other earthly technology.
On August 5, 2026, the U.S. National Science Foundation National Solar Observatory (NSF NSO) announced what they said is a groundbreaking discovery in the field of solar physics. They said it could fundamentally change how we understand the physical mechanisms driving solar activity and its impacts on life on Earth.
A team of international researchers has discovered Kelvin-Helmholtz instability in the form of small, swirling, whirlpool-like patterns on the surface of the sun (the photosphere).
The researchers from the National Solar Observatory, the NCAR High Altitude Observatory , and the German Max Planck Institut für Sonnensystemforschung published their study in the journal Nature on August 5, 2026.
And the research is based on data collected with the world’s largest solar telescope, the NSF Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope. It’s built and operated by the National Solar Observatory on the island of Maui, Hawaii.
Ground-breaking new images
The time-lapse video (above) and images released reveal a solar landscape unlike any seen before.
They uncover small-scale and dynamic swirls everywhere at the edges of magnetic areas. This allowed for the unambiguous identification of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability in the photosphere.
And it provides the first experimental confirmation of a phenomenon that has long been predicted by theory. David Boboltz, Deputy Director at the National Solar Observatory, said:
We believe that the discovery of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability in the solar photosphere, backed up by analysis of numerical simulations, is a major step forward in our understanding of the dynamics and evolution of solar and stellar plasma, and will serve as a basis for future discoveries.
The highest-resolution image of the sun’s surface (photosphere) ever captured. The Inouye Solar Telescope took this image at 416 nm. It reveals deformed boundaries of magnetic elements and ultra-fine scale stripes. Both are associated with Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. Image via NSF/NSO/AURA/MPS.
An explanation of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability
An effect caused by fluid motion, KHI occurs when two fluids slide past each other at different velocities. This creates a “shear” at the interface. And it causes small disturbances to grow into striking, wave-like or spiraling vortices that look like breaking ocean waves.
Since its original formulation by Lord Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz around 1870, KHI has been observed and investigated across many areas of physics, including fluid dynamics, meteorology, oceanography, heliosphysics, and astrophysics. We can observe the instability at a variety of scales. This includes small lake and ocean waves (in windy conditions) and cloud formations on Earth to the atmospheres of gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn. And we can even see the interaction of the solar wind with planetary magnetospheres within our solar system.
The sun’s explosive events
The swirling vortices of magnetic solar plasma have become an area of increased interest for solar physicists. They could be an effective source of free magnetic energy. This energy powers major solar activity. That includes explosive events from tiny nano-flares to massive flares, jets and coronal mass ejections. These are the main contributors to space weather. And they can severely disrupt our modern technological infrastructure, including power grids, satellites, GPS navigation and global communications.
The leading theory on how the sun builds up magnetic energy is called flux braiding. As magnetic field lines twist around each other – like braiding hair – they create a tense, unstable setup. When that tension is rapidly released, the tangled magnetic lines snap, cross over each other and reconnect in new shapes (a process called magnetic reconnection). This sudden rearrangement releases a burst of energy as the system settles into a calmer, lower-energy state.
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability may drive the activity
What scientists don’t fully understand yet is what causes the twisting and braiding to happen in the first place. This new discovery – those small swirling patterns (from the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability) – might be part of the answer. Since the swirls seem to be happening constantly and everywhere on the sun’s surface where there is a strong enough magnetic field, they could be the everyday “engine” that keeps twisting the magnetic field lines and setting the whole process in motion.
Friedrich Wöger, Senior Scientist at the National Solar Observatory, said:
We are only at the beginning of recognizing the wide-reaching impact the discovery of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability has on our understanding of the connection between the magnetized plasma motion and the energy transport and release into the upper solar atmosphere.
Inouye Solar Telescope data obtained at the wavelength 416 nm, with 3 zoomed regions. Three selected close-up areas show the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability on the sun. Video via NSF/NSO/AURA/MPS.
Inouye observations, simulations and theory align
In their Nature paper, the team analyzed and compared the high-resolution Inouye observations with computer simulations of the solar photosphere created with a highly specialized code built and maintained by international teams including HAO and MPS (MPS/University of Chicago Radiative MHD, or “MURaM”).
These computer simulations provided by HAO are built using basic physics equations. The equations describe what’s happening in the sun’s atmosphere and are an important tool in the interpretation of scientific data. The simulations allow the scientists to “see” things that are hard or impossible to measure directly by observation. It gives insight into processes that would otherwise stay hidden.
Combination of data from the NASA/SDO satellite, the NSF Inouye Solar Telescope VBI instrument, the MPS camera and the HAO MuRAM simulation. This demonstrates the high detail from the Inouye Solar Telescope. In the last part of the movie, the HAO MURaM simulation data is overlaid for both the synthesized intensity and the vertical magnetic field component that is finally displayed in three dimensions. Video via NSF/NSO/AURA/MPS/HAO/NASA/SDO/AIA.
Observations meet simulations
In the case of this work, the scientists found dozens of vortex-like structures along the edges of magnetic areas both in the observations and simulations. And they had strikingly similar characteristics and dynamics. For example, the average distance between vortices, known as the “instability wavelength,” ranged between 50–65 km in both cases. The study shows that the sun’s constantly bubbling surface, or granulation, interacts with magnetic structures to create areas where neighboring layers move at different speeds. And that provides the conditions necessary to trigger KHI.
Matthias Rempel, Senior Scientist at the High Altitude Observatory, said:
It is very exciting to see that the highest-resolution observations of the solar photosphere revealed a new dynamical regime in the form of KH vortices at the edges of magnetic field concentrations. These observations also provide the highest resolution validation of solar magnetohydrodynamic simulations to date, and the agreement in physical details is impressive.
The team’s advanced analyses of the Inouye observations and the computer simulations, combined with their agreement with analytical theory, led to the conclusion that the swirling vortices, and the fast-moving, finest-scale dark stripes (“striations”), found in both the observations and simulations are without a doubt produced by KHI.
A side-by-side comparison of a real observation from the Inouye Solar Telescope (top left) and a synthetic image from computer simulations (top right). The remarkable agreement between the 2 allows scientists to confirm the origin of the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability. This is a universal physical phenomenon that occurs when adjacent layers of fluid or gas move at different speeds. It creates swirling patterns at their interface. A simulated map of the sun’s surface magnetic field (bottom right) confirms that these processes physically bend and deform the boundaries of the magnetic elements. Image via NSF/NSO/AURA/HAO.
Implications for the solar atmosphere and coronal heating mystery
Thomas Rimmele, Chief Technologist at the National Solar Observatory, said:
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability is likely a mechanism that contributes to the heating of the outer atmosphere and is part of the solution of the longstanding enigma of why stars have a million-degrees-Kelvin-hot corona.
The data also shows that this swirling effect (KHI) efficiently mixes magnetized and non-magnetized plasma on the sun’s surface. It enhances the spreading out or diffusion of magnetic fields throughout the solar atmosphere. The diffusion resulting from the KHI is a key factor scientists use when building models to predict how magnetic activity changes over time. This is not just for our sun, but for other stars too.
David Kuridze, Astronomer at the National Solar Observatory, said:
The sun’s magnetic field is generated by dynamo processes that act like giant cosmic engines that turn the star’s rotational energy into magnetic fields. However, because the solar magnetic cycle is only 11 years, a remarkably rapid timescale in cosmic terms, the generated magnetic flux must dissipate efficiently. Current models struggle to explain this rapid diffusion. The Kelvin-Helmholtz instability we discovered in the solar photosphere can act as a key source of this missing magnetic diffusion.
Looking ahead
Scientists are now moving toward the next phase of analysis. This phase includes using computer programs that can automatically spot and study these swirling patterns. And they are aided by the high resolution data from the Inouye Solar Telescope.
This next phase of research will help in two main ways. It’ll show scientists more about how much energy these KHIs can carry up into the sun’s higher atmosphere, where it helps heat things up. And it’ll also help scientists figure out just how much they affect the way magnetic fields spread out in the lower parts of the sun’s atmosphere.
Jacqueline Keane, NSF Program Director for the National Solar Observatory, said:
To understand the dynamic space weather that affects Earth, we have to see the small-scale processes driving it. For decades, seeing these vortices at such tiny scales remained elusive. By pairing a massive four-meter mirror with state-of-the-art optics and instruments, the NSF Inouye Solar Telescope delivers the resolving power needed to reveal these ultrafine details for the first time, enabling discoveries that were once beyond our reach.
Bottom line: The Inouye Solar Telescope has captured the highest-resolution images of the sun’s surface yet. These images show Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities, which may help explain why the sun’s surface gets so hot and explosive.
