A first! 3 supermassive black holes discovered in 1 galaxy

This is distant galaxy J0148-4214. The black circles show the locations of 3 supermassive black holes (not to scale). This Webb image marks the first ever observation of 3 supermassive black holes in a single galaxy. Image via Hannah Übler/ MPE.

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3 supermassive black holes in a single galaxy

Scientists think most large galaxies have supermassive black holes at their hearts. And, earlier this year, astronomers from the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy said they’ve detected the first pair of supermassive black holes at the center of a galaxy … two monster black holes so close they could merge. Now, on August 12, 2026, astronomers from the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics announced that – for the first time – they’ve detected three supermassive black holes in one galaxy.

Two of these black hole triplets lie near one another and the center of their galaxy. They are only 620 light-years apart. One of these two is the most massive of the three at 80 million solar masses (a single solar mass is a unit of measurement in astronomy). The other central black hole is the least massive with just 600,000 solar masses. The third black hole looms on the galaxy’s outskirts, about 5,500 light-years from the center, with 2 million times the mass of our sun.

The galactic home of these three black holes is called J0148-4214. It lies 12.5 billion light-years away from us, in the very early universe. So we’re seeing it as it appeared about 1.2 billion years after the Big Bang, the initiation of our universe.

The researchers published their peer-reviewed study in the journal Astronomy & Astrophysics on August 12, 2026.

Black holes in the early universe

These early-universe black holes are hungry! All three are actively accreting, or consuming nearby material in a disk. That’s unlike the supermassive black hole at the center of our own Milky Way galaxy, and other galaxies near us in space. Their older supermassive black holes appear more quiescent.

So the researchers say these early active black holes can provide insight into how our universe grew into what we see today.

Hannah Übler of the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics led the new triple-black-hole study. Übler said:

This is the first evidence of three active black holes in a single galaxy in the distant universe.

It suggests that processes in the early universe were efficient at bringing massive black holes together, setting the stage for the massive black hole mergers we expect to detect with future gravitational wave observatories.

Scientists have long thought that black hole mergers in the early universe are what allowed supermassive black holes to grow so big so quickly. And now, finding three supermassive black holes in one galaxy strengthens that theory.

Seeing the 3 supermassive black holes

So these three black holes have 80 million, 2 million and 6 thousand times the mass of our sun. And while you might think the most massive of the three is the greediest gobbler of nearby gas and dust, analysis suggests that the smallest of the black holes is actually accreting (gaining material) at the fastest rate. In fact, the hungry little black hole is:

… exceeding the maximum accretion rate predicted by basic theories of black hole growth (the Eddington limit).

So … another mystery!

How did the scientists spot these three black holes? They used the Webb space telescope’s NIRSpec instrument to examine the galaxy’s spectral signature. This breakdown in the wavelengths of light allowed them to see hydrogen moving at high velocities. Without this tool, the scientists would not have been able to see the black holes as separate objects. So they likely would only have identified one black hole in the galaxy.

A merger in the making

The data from Webb allowed the scientists to identify three black holes and discover their masses. Co-author Giovanni Mazzolari of MPE said:

The JWST data allowed us not only to identify the three black holes, but also to estimate their masses, accretion rates, and the stellar mass of the galaxy. We find a total stellar mass of about 1.3 billion suns, and the black holes represent a significant fraction of that.

And the scientists say the central two black holes are on a collision course. They expect them to merge within the next few hundred million years. Co-author Roberto Maiolino of the University of Cambridge said:

These results are extremely exciting. They suggest that black hole merging may be an additional, fast route for their rapid growth in the early universe.

What about the third black hole? Astronomers have two scenarios. It could someday merge with the central black holes. Or it could have already been kicked out of the inner circle during a previous merger of black holes.

Bottom line: For the first time, astronomers have discovered three supermassive black holes in a single galaxy in the early universe. The two central black holes may merge in a few hundred million years.

Source: BlackTHUNDER: Evidence of three massive black holes in a z ? 5 galaxy

Via MPE

The post A first! 3 supermassive black holes discovered in 1 galaxy first appeared on EarthSky.

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This is distant galaxy J0148-4214. The black circles show the locations of 3 supermassive black holes (not to scale). This Webb image marks the first ever observation of 3 supermassive black holes in a single galaxy. Image via Hannah Übler/ MPE.

You deserve a daily dose of good news. For the latest in science and the night sky, subscribe to EarthSky’s free daily newsletter.

3 supermassive black holes in a single galaxy

Scientists think most large galaxies have supermassive black holes at their hearts. And, earlier this year, astronomers from the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy said they’ve detected the first pair of supermassive black holes at the center of a galaxy … two monster black holes so close they could merge. Now, on August 12, 2026, astronomers from the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics announced that – for the first time – they’ve detected three supermassive black holes in one galaxy.

Two of these black hole triplets lie near one another and the center of their galaxy. They are only 620 light-years apart. One of these two is the most massive of the three at 80 million solar masses (a single solar mass is a unit of measurement in astronomy). The other central black hole is the least massive with just 600,000 solar masses. The third black hole looms on the galaxy’s outskirts, about 5,500 light-years from the center, with 2 million times the mass of our sun.

The galactic home of these three black holes is called J0148-4214. It lies 12.5 billion light-years away from us, in the very early universe. So we’re seeing it as it appeared about 1.2 billion years after the Big Bang, the initiation of our universe.

The researchers published their peer-reviewed study in the journal Astronomy & Astrophysics on August 12, 2026.

Black holes in the early universe

These early-universe black holes are hungry! All three are actively accreting, or consuming nearby material in a disk. That’s unlike the supermassive black hole at the center of our own Milky Way galaxy, and other galaxies near us in space. Their older supermassive black holes appear more quiescent.

So the researchers say these early active black holes can provide insight into how our universe grew into what we see today.

Hannah Übler of the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics led the new triple-black-hole study. Übler said:

This is the first evidence of three active black holes in a single galaxy in the distant universe.

It suggests that processes in the early universe were efficient at bringing massive black holes together, setting the stage for the massive black hole mergers we expect to detect with future gravitational wave observatories.

Scientists have long thought that black hole mergers in the early universe are what allowed supermassive black holes to grow so big so quickly. And now, finding three supermassive black holes in one galaxy strengthens that theory.

Seeing the 3 supermassive black holes

So these three black holes have 80 million, 2 million and 6 thousand times the mass of our sun. And while you might think the most massive of the three is the greediest gobbler of nearby gas and dust, analysis suggests that the smallest of the black holes is actually accreting (gaining material) at the fastest rate. In fact, the hungry little black hole is:

… exceeding the maximum accretion rate predicted by basic theories of black hole growth (the Eddington limit).

So … another mystery!

How did the scientists spot these three black holes? They used the Webb space telescope’s NIRSpec instrument to examine the galaxy’s spectral signature. This breakdown in the wavelengths of light allowed them to see hydrogen moving at high velocities. Without this tool, the scientists would not have been able to see the black holes as separate objects. So they likely would only have identified one black hole in the galaxy.

A merger in the making

The data from Webb allowed the scientists to identify three black holes and discover their masses. Co-author Giovanni Mazzolari of MPE said:

The JWST data allowed us not only to identify the three black holes, but also to estimate their masses, accretion rates, and the stellar mass of the galaxy. We find a total stellar mass of about 1.3 billion suns, and the black holes represent a significant fraction of that.

And the scientists say the central two black holes are on a collision course. They expect them to merge within the next few hundred million years. Co-author Roberto Maiolino of the University of Cambridge said:

These results are extremely exciting. They suggest that black hole merging may be an additional, fast route for their rapid growth in the early universe.

What about the third black hole? Astronomers have two scenarios. It could someday merge with the central black holes. Or it could have already been kicked out of the inner circle during a previous merger of black holes.

Bottom line: For the first time, astronomers have discovered three supermassive black holes in a single galaxy in the early universe. The two central black holes may merge in a few hundred million years.

Source: BlackTHUNDER: Evidence of three massive black holes in a z ? 5 galaxy

Via MPE

The post A first! 3 supermassive black holes discovered in 1 galaxy first appeared on EarthSky.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/uUWbwND

Voyager 2 confirms Neptune’s rings on August 22 in 1989

This brightened Voyager 2 image reveals the faint and continuous rings of Neptune. Voyager 2 confirmed the existence of Neptune’s rings on August 22, 1989. Image via NASA/ JPL.

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Neptune’s rings confirmed August 22, 1989

By the late 1980s, astronomers suspected that there are rings around Neptune, our solar system’s outermost major planet. After all, the next planet inward, Uranus, has rings (found in 1977). So does Jupiter (found in 1979) and Saturn (first glimpsed through early telescopes in the 1600s).

Then, watching from Earth in 1984, astronomers recorded extra blinks before and after Neptune passed in front of a distant star. That added to the evidence that Neptune had at least a partial ring system. But it was NASA’s Voyager 2 spacecraft that provided the first photographic proof of the existence of Neptune’s rings on August 22, 1989.

At the time, the spacecraft was a few days out from its closest encounter with the planet on August 25, 1989. As Neptune began looming large in Voyager’s cameras, the spacecraft photographed a faint but continuous ring system encircling the planet. The images of Neptune’s rings confirmed astronomers’ long-held suspicions.

Names for Neptunian rings

Today, Voyager 2 remains the only earthly spacecraft to have encountered Neptune. But since Voyager’s 1989 flyby, the Hubble Space Telescope, the James Webb Space Telescope, and Earth-based telescopes have imaged the two brightest rings of Neptune. Astronomers named those two Neptunian rings Adams and Le Verrier. They’re named for John Couch Adams and Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier, whose independent calculations helped find Neptune’s position in the sky – and thus led to its discovery – in 1846.

There are also three more rings around Neptune: Galle, Lassell, Arago. So moving outward from near the planet, the main rings are Galle, Leverrier, Lassell, Arago, and Adams.

Peculiar ring arcs

Today, we know that Neptune has at least five main rings. Plus, it has four prominent ring arcs. The arcs are peculiar clumps of dust. Astronomers struggled to understand their existence, because the laws of motion predict these arcs should spread out into a uniform ring over short timescales. Scientists now believe the gravitational effects of Galatea, a moon just inward from the ring, confine the arcs.

Also, four of the prominent arcs have names. Astronomers call them Liberté (Liberty), Egalité (Equality), Fraternité (Fraternity), and Courage. They’re located in the outermost ring, Adams.

By blocking out Neptune the backlit rings shine through. The wide-angle camera on Voyager 2 made this image from two 591-second exposures of the rings taken on August 26, 1989, from 175,000 miles (281,000 km) away. Image via NASA/ JPL.

Bottom line: NASA’s Voyager 2 spacecraft confirmed the discovery of Neptune’s rings on August 22, 1989, when it took images of a faint, continuous ring system around the planet.

Read more: Webb sees Neptune’s rings and moons

The post Voyager 2 confirms Neptune’s rings on August 22 in 1989 first appeared on EarthSky.

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This brightened Voyager 2 image reveals the faint and continuous rings of Neptune. Voyager 2 confirmed the existence of Neptune’s rings on August 22, 1989. Image via NASA/ JPL.

Science news, night sky events and beautiful photos, all in one place. Click here to subscribe to EarthSky’s free daily newsletter.

Neptune’s rings confirmed August 22, 1989

By the late 1980s, astronomers suspected that there are rings around Neptune, our solar system’s outermost major planet. After all, the next planet inward, Uranus, has rings (found in 1977). So does Jupiter (found in 1979) and Saturn (first glimpsed through early telescopes in the 1600s).

Then, watching from Earth in 1984, astronomers recorded extra blinks before and after Neptune passed in front of a distant star. That added to the evidence that Neptune had at least a partial ring system. But it was NASA’s Voyager 2 spacecraft that provided the first photographic proof of the existence of Neptune’s rings on August 22, 1989.

At the time, the spacecraft was a few days out from its closest encounter with the planet on August 25, 1989. As Neptune began looming large in Voyager’s cameras, the spacecraft photographed a faint but continuous ring system encircling the planet. The images of Neptune’s rings confirmed astronomers’ long-held suspicions.

Names for Neptunian rings

Today, Voyager 2 remains the only earthly spacecraft to have encountered Neptune. But since Voyager’s 1989 flyby, the Hubble Space Telescope, the James Webb Space Telescope, and Earth-based telescopes have imaged the two brightest rings of Neptune. Astronomers named those two Neptunian rings Adams and Le Verrier. They’re named for John Couch Adams and Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier, whose independent calculations helped find Neptune’s position in the sky – and thus led to its discovery – in 1846.

There are also three more rings around Neptune: Galle, Lassell, Arago. So moving outward from near the planet, the main rings are Galle, Leverrier, Lassell, Arago, and Adams.

Peculiar ring arcs

Today, we know that Neptune has at least five main rings. Plus, it has four prominent ring arcs. The arcs are peculiar clumps of dust. Astronomers struggled to understand their existence, because the laws of motion predict these arcs should spread out into a uniform ring over short timescales. Scientists now believe the gravitational effects of Galatea, a moon just inward from the ring, confine the arcs.

Also, four of the prominent arcs have names. Astronomers call them Liberté (Liberty), Egalité (Equality), Fraternité (Fraternity), and Courage. They’re located in the outermost ring, Adams.

By blocking out Neptune the backlit rings shine through. The wide-angle camera on Voyager 2 made this image from two 591-second exposures of the rings taken on August 26, 1989, from 175,000 miles (281,000 km) away. Image via NASA/ JPL.

Bottom line: NASA’s Voyager 2 spacecraft confirmed the discovery of Neptune’s rings on August 22, 1989, when it took images of a faint, continuous ring system around the planet.

Read more: Webb sees Neptune’s rings and moons

The post Voyager 2 confirms Neptune’s rings on August 22 in 1989 first appeared on EarthSky.

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Teapot of Sagittarius points to the Milky Way’s center

The Teapot asterism in the constellation Sagittarius marks the direction in our sky of the center of our Milky Way galaxy. The green line marks the ecliptic, or sun’s path across our sky. And we’ve marked the winter solstice point, where the sun resides around December 21. Chart via EarthSky.

Science news, night sky events and beautiful photos, all in one place. Click here to subscribe to EarthSky’s free daily newsletter.

Come to know the Teapot of Sagittarius

Our Milky Way galaxy is a vast collection of hundreds of billions of stars. We’re not in the galaxy’s center, but instead about 2/3 of the way out from center, in one of the Milky Way’s spiral arms. And on August evenings, under a dark sky, all of us on Earth can gaze toward the galaxy’s center.

The band of the Milky Way gets broader and brighter in the direction of the center. And in that direction, you’ll find a famous asterism called the Teapot, in the constellation Sagittarius.

The Teapot’s pattern is distinctive. It’s easy to see it as an earthly teapot. You’ll find it southward on August evenings from the Northern Hemisphere, and overhead from the Southern Hemisphere.

Even if your sky isn’t dark, once you find the Teapot, you can use it to guide your mind’s eye to the star-rich center of our galaxy. A supermassive black hole lies at the galaxy’s heart, with some 4 million times the mass of our sun. It’s called Sagittarius A* (Sagittarius A-Star).

How to spot the Teapot

You’ll want a fairly dark sky to find the Teapot. A suburban sky will likely work, if you’re not standing under a streetlight. You can see the Teapot even if you can’t see the starry band of the Milky Way.

If you’re in the Northern Hemisphere, look southward on August evenings a couple of hours after sunset. If you’re in the Southern Hemisphere, look overhead.

The Teapot and Sagittarius are best viewed during the evening hours from about July to September.

Want a more exact location for Sagittarius? Try Stellarium, which will let you set a date and time from your exact location on the globe.

The center of the galaxy is located between the Tail of Scorpius and the Teapot of Sagittarius. In a dark sky, you can see clouds of “steam” ascending from the Teapot’s spout in this region. Really, they are stars in our Milky Way galaxy. Chart via Astro Bob. Used with permission.

The Teapot looks like its name

The constellation Sagittarius is supposed to be a centaur, a mythical half man/half horse creature, carrying a bow and arrow. But good luck spotting the centaur in these stars!

On the other hand, the Teapot – unlike many star patterns – looks just like its namesake. That’s because the Teapot appears to have a handle, spout and lid, as any earthly teapot would. And just be sure to head to a dark sky for your best views of this Milky Way region.

Once you’ve found the Teapot, assuming you have a dark sky, you can see “steam” billowing out of the spout. Gaze into the midst of this “steam” – actually billions of stars – and you’ll be gazing toward the center of our Milky Way galaxy.

The Teapot is highest in the evening sky in August

Because the sun passes in front of Sagittarius from about December 18 to January 20, the Teapot isn’t visible then. However, about half a year later – on July 1 – the Teapot climbs to its highest point for the night around midnight (1 a.m. daylight saving time or DST), when it appears due south as seen from the Northern Hemisphere or due north as seen from the Southern Hemisphere. In August, the Teapot – and the Milky Way’s center – reach their highest points for the night during the evening hours.

By the way, another noteworthy point lies in the direction of the Teapot in space. It’s the point at which the sun shines on the December solstice around December 21 each year.

The center of our Milky Way

The center of our galaxy is some 26,000 light-years away. We can’t see directly into it, because this region is shrouded by dust and gas clouds. But studies by astronomers have shown that, when we look in this direction, we’re looking toward the supermassive black hole located at our galaxy’s heart. This black hole has some 4 million times our sun’s mass. It’s known as Sagittarius A*.

Now sweep the area around the Teapot with binoculars or a telescope. You’ll see many faint fuzzy objects pop into view. They’re star clusters and nebulae (gas clouds) located in the disk of our galaxy, in the direction of the galaxy’s center.

So, find the Teapot on a dark night – when the moon is out of the way – and enjoy all it has to offer.

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Catherine Hyde in Cambria, California, captured this photo of the Milky Way on July 10, 2023. Catherine wrote: “This is the Teapot asterism rising from behind a tree. I’ve heard if you can capture the galactic center (Milky Way) behind it, it looks like steam coming out of the spout. I was surprised by how many deep-sky objects I had captured, so I annotated the image.” Thank you, Catherine!

Bottom line: As you gaze toward the famous Teapot asterism in the constellation Sagittarius, you’re looking toward the center of our Milky Way galaxy.

Read more: Milky Way’s black hole emits rapid-fire flickers and flares

The post Teapot of Sagittarius points to the Milky Way’s center first appeared on EarthSky.

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The Teapot asterism in the constellation Sagittarius marks the direction in our sky of the center of our Milky Way galaxy. The green line marks the ecliptic, or sun’s path across our sky. And we’ve marked the winter solstice point, where the sun resides around December 21. Chart via EarthSky.

Science news, night sky events and beautiful photos, all in one place. Click here to subscribe to EarthSky’s free daily newsletter.

Come to know the Teapot of Sagittarius

Our Milky Way galaxy is a vast collection of hundreds of billions of stars. We’re not in the galaxy’s center, but instead about 2/3 of the way out from center, in one of the Milky Way’s spiral arms. And on August evenings, under a dark sky, all of us on Earth can gaze toward the galaxy’s center.

The band of the Milky Way gets broader and brighter in the direction of the center. And in that direction, you’ll find a famous asterism called the Teapot, in the constellation Sagittarius.

The Teapot’s pattern is distinctive. It’s easy to see it as an earthly teapot. You’ll find it southward on August evenings from the Northern Hemisphere, and overhead from the Southern Hemisphere.

Even if your sky isn’t dark, once you find the Teapot, you can use it to guide your mind’s eye to the star-rich center of our galaxy. A supermassive black hole lies at the galaxy’s heart, with some 4 million times the mass of our sun. It’s called Sagittarius A* (Sagittarius A-Star).

How to spot the Teapot

You’ll want a fairly dark sky to find the Teapot. A suburban sky will likely work, if you’re not standing under a streetlight. You can see the Teapot even if you can’t see the starry band of the Milky Way.

If you’re in the Northern Hemisphere, look southward on August evenings a couple of hours after sunset. If you’re in the Southern Hemisphere, look overhead.

The Teapot and Sagittarius are best viewed during the evening hours from about July to September.

Want a more exact location for Sagittarius? Try Stellarium, which will let you set a date and time from your exact location on the globe.

The center of the galaxy is located between the Tail of Scorpius and the Teapot of Sagittarius. In a dark sky, you can see clouds of “steam” ascending from the Teapot’s spout in this region. Really, they are stars in our Milky Way galaxy. Chart via Astro Bob. Used with permission.

The Teapot looks like its name

The constellation Sagittarius is supposed to be a centaur, a mythical half man/half horse creature, carrying a bow and arrow. But good luck spotting the centaur in these stars!

On the other hand, the Teapot – unlike many star patterns – looks just like its namesake. That’s because the Teapot appears to have a handle, spout and lid, as any earthly teapot would. And just be sure to head to a dark sky for your best views of this Milky Way region.

Once you’ve found the Teapot, assuming you have a dark sky, you can see “steam” billowing out of the spout. Gaze into the midst of this “steam” – actually billions of stars – and you’ll be gazing toward the center of our Milky Way galaxy.

The Teapot is highest in the evening sky in August

Because the sun passes in front of Sagittarius from about December 18 to January 20, the Teapot isn’t visible then. However, about half a year later – on July 1 – the Teapot climbs to its highest point for the night around midnight (1 a.m. daylight saving time or DST), when it appears due south as seen from the Northern Hemisphere or due north as seen from the Southern Hemisphere. In August, the Teapot – and the Milky Way’s center – reach their highest points for the night during the evening hours.

By the way, another noteworthy point lies in the direction of the Teapot in space. It’s the point at which the sun shines on the December solstice around December 21 each year.

The center of our Milky Way

The center of our galaxy is some 26,000 light-years away. We can’t see directly into it, because this region is shrouded by dust and gas clouds. But studies by astronomers have shown that, when we look in this direction, we’re looking toward the supermassive black hole located at our galaxy’s heart. This black hole has some 4 million times our sun’s mass. It’s known as Sagittarius A*.

Now sweep the area around the Teapot with binoculars or a telescope. You’ll see many faint fuzzy objects pop into view. They’re star clusters and nebulae (gas clouds) located in the disk of our galaxy, in the direction of the galaxy’s center.

So, find the Teapot on a dark night – when the moon is out of the way – and enjoy all it has to offer.

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Catherine Hyde in Cambria, California, captured this photo of the Milky Way on July 10, 2023. Catherine wrote: “This is the Teapot asterism rising from behind a tree. I’ve heard if you can capture the galactic center (Milky Way) behind it, it looks like steam coming out of the spout. I was surprised by how many deep-sky objects I had captured, so I annotated the image.” Thank you, Catherine!

Bottom line: As you gaze toward the famous Teapot asterism in the constellation Sagittarius, you’re looking toward the center of our Milky Way galaxy.

Read more: Milky Way’s black hole emits rapid-fire flickers and flares

The post Teapot of Sagittarius points to the Milky Way’s center first appeared on EarthSky.

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Voyager 2 spacecraft launched 49 years ago today

John Casani was the Voyager project manager in 1977. Here he is holding a small flag that was folded and sewn into the thermal blankets of the Voyager 2 spacecraft before launch. Voyager 2 is behind him, and the famous golden record the Voyagers carried is in front. Read about the story of the record here.

Science news, night sky events and beautiful photos, all in one place. Click here to subscribe to our free daily newsletter.

Voyager 2 launched 49 years ago

NASA launched the phenomenal Voyager 2 space probe to the outer solar system on August 20, 1977. Voyager 2 went up some weeks before its twin craft, Voyager 1, which moved faster and eventually passed it.

Later, Voyager 1 became the first spacecraft to leave the solar system in August 2012. It is now the most distant human-made object from Earth. In fact, on November 18, 2026, Voyager 1 spacecraft will be 16,094,799,096 miles (25,902,068,356 kilometers) away from Earth. That’s the distance light travels in 24 hours, also known as one light-day.

Voyager 2 left the solar system in November 2018. So both Voyagers are now in interstellar space. Voyager 2 was left flying solo for seven months in 2020 while repairs were made to the radio antenna that commands it. The only radio antenna that can command the space probe – the Deep Space Station 43 (DSS43) antenna in Canberra, Australia – was then offline during the repairs. After the completion of the repairs, communications were restored.

Today, transmissions from Voyager 2 are faint and travel a long distance. But the craft still transmits and receives data via NASA’s Deep Space Network. Scientists believe it will be able to continue communications through 2027.

Where are Voyager 1 and 2 now?

As Voyager 2 sped away from Earth, it looked back and acquired this image of a crescent-shaped Earth and moon – the first of its kind ever taken by a spacecraft – on September 18, 1977. Voyager 2 was then 7.3 million miles (11.7 million kilometers) from Earth. Image via NASA.

Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft to visit all 4 gas giant planets

A region of Jupiter’s southern hemisphere extending from the Great Red Spot to the south pole. Before the Voyagers, we did not know Jupiter’s banded atmosphere, or Red Spot, contained so much detail. Image via NASA/ JPL/ CalTech.

Before the Voyagers, we did not know that Saturn’s rings consisted of thousands of individual ringlets. In this Voyager 2 image from 1981, you can also see the mysterious “spokes” in Saturn’s rings. Image via NASA.

Voyager 2 is still the only spacecraft to have visited the outer planets Uranus and Neptune. Here is Uranus as seen by Voyager 2 in 1986. To the spacecraft, the planet appeared as a featureless blue ball. Image via NASA.

Voyager 2 passed Neptune in 1989. It saw cloud features in Neptune’s atmosphere, which were tracked by Voyager’s cameras as the craft swept past. Image via NASA.

NASA Voyager photo gallery

The Grand Tour was a phenomenal success

Initially, NASA conceived of the Voyager mission in the 1960s as a planetary Grand Tour to study the outer planets. The fact that all four outer planets would be, temporarily, within one quadrant of the solar system around the decade of the 1980s inspired the idea. However, funding difficulties intervened, and for a time it appeared the Grand Tour would never be realized.

Ultimately, Voyager 2’s launch took advantage not only of this particular configuration of planets, but also of a new technique called a gravity assist. By using the gravity of planets for propulsion and direction, this technique let the craft visit all four outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune), while requiring a minimal amount of propellant and less time traveling between planets.

The plan hinged on whether Voyager 1 would be able to perform a successful flyby of Saturn’s large and intriguing moon Titan. Of course Voyager 1 succeeded, and Voyager 2 got the go-ahead to travel on toward Uranus and Neptune, ultimately realizing the vision of the planetary Grand Tour.

Voyager 2 remains the only craft from Earth to have visited Uranus and Neptune.

Bottom line: The phenomenal Voyager 2 spacecraft launched on August 20, 1977. It ultimately visited all four outer planets – Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune – and remains the only craft from Earth to have done so.

JPL/ NASA Voyager website

Read more: Voyager 2 sends back insights on interstellar space

The post Voyager 2 spacecraft launched 49 years ago today first appeared on EarthSky.

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John Casani was the Voyager project manager in 1977. Here he is holding a small flag that was folded and sewn into the thermal blankets of the Voyager 2 spacecraft before launch. Voyager 2 is behind him, and the famous golden record the Voyagers carried is in front. Read about the story of the record here.

Science news, night sky events and beautiful photos, all in one place. Click here to subscribe to our free daily newsletter.

Voyager 2 launched 49 years ago

NASA launched the phenomenal Voyager 2 space probe to the outer solar system on August 20, 1977. Voyager 2 went up some weeks before its twin craft, Voyager 1, which moved faster and eventually passed it.

Later, Voyager 1 became the first spacecraft to leave the solar system in August 2012. It is now the most distant human-made object from Earth. In fact, on November 18, 2026, Voyager 1 spacecraft will be 16,094,799,096 miles (25,902,068,356 kilometers) away from Earth. That’s the distance light travels in 24 hours, also known as one light-day.

Voyager 2 left the solar system in November 2018. So both Voyagers are now in interstellar space. Voyager 2 was left flying solo for seven months in 2020 while repairs were made to the radio antenna that commands it. The only radio antenna that can command the space probe – the Deep Space Station 43 (DSS43) antenna in Canberra, Australia – was then offline during the repairs. After the completion of the repairs, communications were restored.

Today, transmissions from Voyager 2 are faint and travel a long distance. But the craft still transmits and receives data via NASA’s Deep Space Network. Scientists believe it will be able to continue communications through 2027.

Where are Voyager 1 and 2 now?

As Voyager 2 sped away from Earth, it looked back and acquired this image of a crescent-shaped Earth and moon – the first of its kind ever taken by a spacecraft – on September 18, 1977. Voyager 2 was then 7.3 million miles (11.7 million kilometers) from Earth. Image via NASA.

Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft to visit all 4 gas giant planets

A region of Jupiter’s southern hemisphere extending from the Great Red Spot to the south pole. Before the Voyagers, we did not know Jupiter’s banded atmosphere, or Red Spot, contained so much detail. Image via NASA/ JPL/ CalTech.

Before the Voyagers, we did not know that Saturn’s rings consisted of thousands of individual ringlets. In this Voyager 2 image from 1981, you can also see the mysterious “spokes” in Saturn’s rings. Image via NASA.

Voyager 2 is still the only spacecraft to have visited the outer planets Uranus and Neptune. Here is Uranus as seen by Voyager 2 in 1986. To the spacecraft, the planet appeared as a featureless blue ball. Image via NASA.

Voyager 2 passed Neptune in 1989. It saw cloud features in Neptune’s atmosphere, which were tracked by Voyager’s cameras as the craft swept past. Image via NASA.

NASA Voyager photo gallery

The Grand Tour was a phenomenal success

Initially, NASA conceived of the Voyager mission in the 1960s as a planetary Grand Tour to study the outer planets. The fact that all four outer planets would be, temporarily, within one quadrant of the solar system around the decade of the 1980s inspired the idea. However, funding difficulties intervened, and for a time it appeared the Grand Tour would never be realized.

Ultimately, Voyager 2’s launch took advantage not only of this particular configuration of planets, but also of a new technique called a gravity assist. By using the gravity of planets for propulsion and direction, this technique let the craft visit all four outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune), while requiring a minimal amount of propellant and less time traveling between planets.

The plan hinged on whether Voyager 1 would be able to perform a successful flyby of Saturn’s large and intriguing moon Titan. Of course Voyager 1 succeeded, and Voyager 2 got the go-ahead to travel on toward Uranus and Neptune, ultimately realizing the vision of the planetary Grand Tour.

Voyager 2 remains the only craft from Earth to have visited Uranus and Neptune.

Bottom line: The phenomenal Voyager 2 spacecraft launched on August 20, 1977. It ultimately visited all four outer planets – Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune – and remains the only craft from Earth to have done so.

JPL/ NASA Voyager website

Read more: Voyager 2 sends back insights on interstellar space

The post Voyager 2 spacecraft launched 49 years ago today first appeared on EarthSky.

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Sagitta the Arrow lies inside the Summer Triangle

Once you’re familiar with the Summer Triangle, you can use it to star-hop to several nearby small constellations: Sagitta the Arrow, Vulpecula the Fox and Delphinus the Dolphin. Just be sure you’re looking in a dark sky! Chart via EarthSky.

The constellation of Sagitta the Arrow contain only dim stars, and it’s the third smallest of the 88 constellations. But its position within the famous Summer Triangle makes it a great constellation to pick out in a dark sky.

People understandably relate Sagitta the Arrow to Sagittarius the Archer, although the two do not lie next to each other in the sky. Sagittarius lies low on the southern horizon during northern summer, while Sagitta is farther north. It almost appears as if Sagittarius has shot his arrow at Aquila the Eagle and missed, and the arrow now lies on the other side of the Eagle from Sagittarius.

Locating Sagitta

Sagitta may be small and dim, but its position inside the Summer Triangle makes it easy to locate.

Sagitta and Vulpecula are the two constellations that take up residence between the constellations Cygnus the Swan, Lyra the Harp and Aquila the Eagle. Each of those constellations has one bright star that marks a corner of the Triangle: Cygnus’s star is Deneb, Lyra’s star is Vega, and Aquila’s star is Altair.

Sagitta lies north of Altair, inside the pointy end of the Summer Triangle. It consists of a line for the arrow’s shaft, and then it branches off on one end. Does it look like an arrow to you?

Stars of Sagitta the Arrow

Because of Sagitta’s small size, it contains few observing targets. Its brightest star is Gamma Sagittae, shining at magnitude 3.5 from 274 light-years away. About 3 degrees west is Delta Sagittae, a magnitude 3.8 star lying 448 light-years away. Then just a bit less than 2 degrees west of Delta are two stars, both at magnitude 4.3. The one slightly north is Alpha Sagittae and the one slightly south is Beta Sagittae. Alpha lies 620 light-years from Earth, while Beta lies 470 light-years away from us.

The stars of Sagitta the Arrow. Image via IAU.

Sagitta’s Messier object

The one notable deep-sky target in Sagitta is also its only Messier object: the globular cluster M71. You can find M71 halfway between the stars Gamma and Delta. At magnitude 6.1, you’ll need binoculars or a telescope to spot it. Because of M71’s appearance, astronomers long thought that it was an open cluster with a rather dense center. Astronomers now believe it’s a young globular cluster that is smaller and looser than typical globular clusters. M71 lies about 13,000 light-years distant.

Bottom line: Sagitta the Arrow is a dim constellation that lies inside the Summer Triangle. It contains one Messier object, a small globular cluster.

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Once you’re familiar with the Summer Triangle, you can use it to star-hop to several nearby small constellations: Sagitta the Arrow, Vulpecula the Fox and Delphinus the Dolphin. Just be sure you’re looking in a dark sky! Chart via EarthSky.

The constellation of Sagitta the Arrow contain only dim stars, and it’s the third smallest of the 88 constellations. But its position within the famous Summer Triangle makes it a great constellation to pick out in a dark sky.

People understandably relate Sagitta the Arrow to Sagittarius the Archer, although the two do not lie next to each other in the sky. Sagittarius lies low on the southern horizon during northern summer, while Sagitta is farther north. It almost appears as if Sagittarius has shot his arrow at Aquila the Eagle and missed, and the arrow now lies on the other side of the Eagle from Sagittarius.

Locating Sagitta

Sagitta may be small and dim, but its position inside the Summer Triangle makes it easy to locate.

Sagitta and Vulpecula are the two constellations that take up residence between the constellations Cygnus the Swan, Lyra the Harp and Aquila the Eagle. Each of those constellations has one bright star that marks a corner of the Triangle: Cygnus’s star is Deneb, Lyra’s star is Vega, and Aquila’s star is Altair.

Sagitta lies north of Altair, inside the pointy end of the Summer Triangle. It consists of a line for the arrow’s shaft, and then it branches off on one end. Does it look like an arrow to you?

Stars of Sagitta the Arrow

Because of Sagitta’s small size, it contains few observing targets. Its brightest star is Gamma Sagittae, shining at magnitude 3.5 from 274 light-years away. About 3 degrees west is Delta Sagittae, a magnitude 3.8 star lying 448 light-years away. Then just a bit less than 2 degrees west of Delta are two stars, both at magnitude 4.3. The one slightly north is Alpha Sagittae and the one slightly south is Beta Sagittae. Alpha lies 620 light-years from Earth, while Beta lies 470 light-years away from us.

The stars of Sagitta the Arrow. Image via IAU.

Sagitta’s Messier object

The one notable deep-sky target in Sagitta is also its only Messier object: the globular cluster M71. You can find M71 halfway between the stars Gamma and Delta. At magnitude 6.1, you’ll need binoculars or a telescope to spot it. Because of M71’s appearance, astronomers long thought that it was an open cluster with a rather dense center. Astronomers now believe it’s a young globular cluster that is smaller and looser than typical globular clusters. M71 lies about 13,000 light-years distant.

Bottom line: Sagitta the Arrow is a dim constellation that lies inside the Summer Triangle. It contains one Messier object, a small globular cluster.

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See the August 12 solar eclipse from the moon’s perspective

Danuri, a Korean satellite orbiting the moon, captured the August 12, 2026, solar eclipse from the moon’s perspective. That’s the moon at upper right! Near the top of Earth, where it meets the moon, you can see a shadow where the total solar eclipse is crossing Greenland. Image via Danuri (KPLO)/ KARI.

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August’s solar eclipse as seen from lunar orbit

The total solar eclipse captivated millions on August 12, 2026, as it crossed from Greenland to Iceland and then swept across Spain. We’ve seen stunning images of the event – both the partial and total phase – from EarthSky community members around the world. The images show the moon as it passed in front of the sun from Earth’s point of view. And now we’ve got another incredible perspective: that of the Korean Aerospace Research Institute’s lunar orbiter Danuri, as it looked back at Earth from lunar orbit.

Danuri, which launched to the moon in 2022, began orbiting the moon on December 26 of that year. The mission will continue operations until 2027. On August 12, 2026, the Danuri space probe was near the lunar south pole, heading from the moon’s far side to the near side when it caught Earth rising. And that was also the moment the moon’s shadow was crossing Earth in the vicinity of Greenland.

Solar eclipse from 236,000 miles (380,000 km) away

The Korea Aerospace Research Institute shared the image online and said:

In the early hours of August 13 [for Korea], the sun vanished from the skies over Europe.

This marked the first total solar eclipse visible from the Spanish mainland in 121 years, since 1905. Danuri captured this moment – which was not visible from Korea – from its orbit around the moon.

While moving from the far side to the near side of the moon and approaching the lunar south pole, Danuri photographed the moment the Earth rose above the lunar surface.

Do you see the dark patch cast upon the Earth in the photo?

That is the ‘moon’s shadow’ covering the Greenland region. Some parts of the shadow fell outside the field of view, obscured by the moon itself.

Even at this very moment, Danuri is recording the cosmos—views unseen from Earth.

Other eclipse views from space

This is not the first time we’ve seen eclipses from a vantage point in space. A weather satellite from the European Union also caught the August 12, 2026, eclipse.

During the 2024 total solar eclipse, astronauts aboard the International Space Station captured a view of Earth darkened by the moon’s shadow as well.

And in 2017, NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter caught the total solar eclipse from lunar orbit, but this view didn’t include the moon’s limb.

So the view of the total solar eclipse crossing Earth with the moon in the foreground is a truly unique view! Someday, perhaps an astronaut will capture a view of an eclipse on Earth with the lunar soil under their feet.

Bottom line: The Korean Aerospace Research Institute’s lunar orbiter, Danuri, captured a view of the solar eclipse on August 12, 2026. This unique perspective includes the moon’s limb in the foreground.

Via KARI

Read more: Deep partial lunar eclipse on August 27-28, 2026

The post See the August 12 solar eclipse from the moon’s perspective first appeared on EarthSky.

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Danuri, a Korean satellite orbiting the moon, captured the August 12, 2026, solar eclipse from the moon’s perspective. That’s the moon at upper right! Near the top of Earth, where it meets the moon, you can see a shadow where the total solar eclipse is crossing Greenland. Image via Danuri (KPLO)/ KARI.

Don’t miss the next unmissable night sky event. Sign up to EarthSky’s free newsletter for daily night sky updates.

August’s solar eclipse as seen from lunar orbit

The total solar eclipse captivated millions on August 12, 2026, as it crossed from Greenland to Iceland and then swept across Spain. We’ve seen stunning images of the event – both the partial and total phase – from EarthSky community members around the world. The images show the moon as it passed in front of the sun from Earth’s point of view. And now we’ve got another incredible perspective: that of the Korean Aerospace Research Institute’s lunar orbiter Danuri, as it looked back at Earth from lunar orbit.

Danuri, which launched to the moon in 2022, began orbiting the moon on December 26 of that year. The mission will continue operations until 2027. On August 12, 2026, the Danuri space probe was near the lunar south pole, heading from the moon’s far side to the near side when it caught Earth rising. And that was also the moment the moon’s shadow was crossing Earth in the vicinity of Greenland.

Solar eclipse from 236,000 miles (380,000 km) away

The Korea Aerospace Research Institute shared the image online and said:

In the early hours of August 13 [for Korea], the sun vanished from the skies over Europe.

This marked the first total solar eclipse visible from the Spanish mainland in 121 years, since 1905. Danuri captured this moment – which was not visible from Korea – from its orbit around the moon.

While moving from the far side to the near side of the moon and approaching the lunar south pole, Danuri photographed the moment the Earth rose above the lunar surface.

Do you see the dark patch cast upon the Earth in the photo?

That is the ‘moon’s shadow’ covering the Greenland region. Some parts of the shadow fell outside the field of view, obscured by the moon itself.

Even at this very moment, Danuri is recording the cosmos—views unseen from Earth.

Other eclipse views from space

This is not the first time we’ve seen eclipses from a vantage point in space. A weather satellite from the European Union also caught the August 12, 2026, eclipse.

During the 2024 total solar eclipse, astronauts aboard the International Space Station captured a view of Earth darkened by the moon’s shadow as well.

And in 2017, NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter caught the total solar eclipse from lunar orbit, but this view didn’t include the moon’s limb.

So the view of the total solar eclipse crossing Earth with the moon in the foreground is a truly unique view! Someday, perhaps an astronaut will capture a view of an eclipse on Earth with the lunar soil under their feet.

Bottom line: The Korean Aerospace Research Institute’s lunar orbiter, Danuri, captured a view of the solar eclipse on August 12, 2026. This unique perspective includes the moon’s limb in the foreground.

Via KARI

Read more: Deep partial lunar eclipse on August 27-28, 2026

The post See the August 12 solar eclipse from the moon’s perspective first appeared on EarthSky.

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Super-Earths might be solid deep on the inside

View larger. | Artist’s concept of the super-Earth exoplanet LP 890-9 c. It orbits a red dwarf star 98 light-years from Earth. A new study suggests that super-Earths might be solid deep on the inside. This is due to minerals under extreme pressure and temperature – much more extreme than inside Earth – being compressed. Image via NASA/ JPL-Caltech/ Eos.

• Super-Earths are rocky exoplanets, larger and more massive than Earth but smaller than Neptune. What are they like on the inside?
• Researchers at Princeton University say in a new study that, surprisingly, super-Earths might be solid deep down in their mantles.
• The study suggests the minerals inside these worlds would take on unusual forms due to the extreme heat and pressure deep down, meaning they would remain solid instead of melting.

Science news, night sky events and beautiful photos, all in one place. Click here to subscribe to our free daily newsletter.

Super-Earths might be solid inside

Super-Earths are rocky exoplanets that are larger and more massive than Earth, but smaller than Neptune. Powerful telescopes have provided clues about what their atmospheres are like. But what are they like on the inside?

Some astronomers have suggested these worlds could contain oceans of magma. Now, a new study from researchers at Princeton University in New Jersey suggests something surprising; super-Earths might actually be solid deep inside their mantles. That’s because under the intense pressure and heat deep below the surface, some minerals could take unusual forms.

The researchers found these minerals could likely withstand the extremely high temperatures and pressures deep inside super-Earths – much hotter than inside Earth – and remain solid.

Nathaniel Scharping wrote about the new findings for Eos on August 6, 2026.

The researchers published their peer-reviewed paper in AGU Advances on July 18, 2026.

View larger. | Illustration depicting the size of a super-Earth called CoRoT-7b. Super-Earths are larger and more massive than Earth, but smaller and less massive than Neptune. Image via Aldaraon/ Wikimedia Commons.

Minerals take unusual forms

Scientists expect that some common minerals found inside Earth should be present within super-Earths as well. This includes substances like magnesium orthosilicate (Mg2SiO4). But the interiors of super-Earths have much more intense pressures and temperatures than inside Earth.

As noted in Eos, the atoms in the mineral would rearrange into different crystal structures. As explained in the article:

One of these high-pressure forms is called the spinel phase [spinel group], which is found in Earth’s mantle. At even higher pressures, this phase breaks down into two different minerals: bridgmanite, the most abundant mineral phase in Earth, and ferropericlase, a magnesium-rich oxide. However, under the far more extreme pressures expected inside massive rocky planets known as super-Earths, Mg2SiO4 becomes stable again in an entirely new crystal structure called post-post-spinel. Scientists predict that this ultrahigh-pressure phase of Mg2SiO4 is one of the dominant minerals in the deep mantles of super-Earths, making its melting behavior important for understanding how these planets form and evolve.

View larger. | This is an artist’s concept of a super-Earth with a deep magma ocean generating a magnetic field. The new study suggests that the deepest parts of these magma oceans in the mantle would remain solid instead of liquid. Image via University of Rochester Laboratory for Laser Energetics/ Michael Franchot/ University of Rochester.

Recreating conditions inside super-Earths

It is difficult to recreate these kinds of conditions in a lab. So the researchers did a computer model recreation instead. They used a technique called thermodynamic integration to study the melting curve of this mineral – the bizarrely named post-post-spinel Mg2SiO4 – at up to 1,300 gigapascals of pressure.

The post-post-spinel Mg2SiO4 is a refractory mineral. That means it can withstand extremely high temperatures before it begins to melt. Pressure plays a role, too. Depending on the pressure, it melts between 9,780 K (17,144 degrees Fahrenheit or 9,507 degrees Celsius) and 14,897 K (26,350 degrees Fahrenheit or 14,620 degrees Celsius). That is much hotter than temperatures at which related minerals melt, including bridgmanite and postperovskite (MgSiO3). Postperovskite is the high-pressure form of bridgmanite, which is stable near Earth’s core-mantle boundary.

In most exoplanets, iron would end up mixing with the post-post-spinel Mg2SiO4. The researchers found that even then, the melting point for post-post-spinel Mg2SiO4 remained above the temperatures estimated for the deep mantles of most rocky planets.

Effects on super-Earths inside and out

In short, this means that many super-Earths likely have solid deep mantles. This can affect both convection inside the planet and magnetic fields outside the planet. Interestingly, another study from earlier this year found that super-Earths with powerful magnetic fields might be more likely to be able to support life.

Bottom line: Super-Earths might be solid in their deep insides, a new study says. Minerals might take unusual forms and remain solid despite the intense heat and pressure.

Source: Massive Rocky Planets May Suppress Deep Melting

Via Eos

Read more: Powerful magnetic fields on super-Earths could boost chances of life

Read more: Nearby super-Earth GJ 3378b may be a good candidate for life

The post Super-Earths might be solid deep on the inside first appeared on EarthSky.

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View larger. | Artist’s concept of the super-Earth exoplanet LP 890-9 c. It orbits a red dwarf star 98 light-years from Earth. A new study suggests that super-Earths might be solid deep on the inside. This is due to minerals under extreme pressure and temperature – much more extreme than inside Earth – being compressed. Image via NASA/ JPL-Caltech/ Eos.

• Super-Earths are rocky exoplanets, larger and more massive than Earth but smaller than Neptune. What are they like on the inside?
• Researchers at Princeton University say in a new study that, surprisingly, super-Earths might be solid deep down in their mantles.
• The study suggests the minerals inside these worlds would take on unusual forms due to the extreme heat and pressure deep down, meaning they would remain solid instead of melting.

Science news, night sky events and beautiful photos, all in one place. Click here to subscribe to our free daily newsletter.

Super-Earths might be solid inside

Super-Earths are rocky exoplanets that are larger and more massive than Earth, but smaller than Neptune. Powerful telescopes have provided clues about what their atmospheres are like. But what are they like on the inside?

Some astronomers have suggested these worlds could contain oceans of magma. Now, a new study from researchers at Princeton University in New Jersey suggests something surprising; super-Earths might actually be solid deep inside their mantles. That’s because under the intense pressure and heat deep below the surface, some minerals could take unusual forms.

The researchers found these minerals could likely withstand the extremely high temperatures and pressures deep inside super-Earths – much hotter than inside Earth – and remain solid.

Nathaniel Scharping wrote about the new findings for Eos on August 6, 2026.

The researchers published their peer-reviewed paper in AGU Advances on July 18, 2026.

View larger. | Illustration depicting the size of a super-Earth called CoRoT-7b. Super-Earths are larger and more massive than Earth, but smaller and less massive than Neptune. Image via Aldaraon/ Wikimedia Commons.

Minerals take unusual forms

Scientists expect that some common minerals found inside Earth should be present within super-Earths as well. This includes substances like magnesium orthosilicate (Mg2SiO4). But the interiors of super-Earths have much more intense pressures and temperatures than inside Earth.

As noted in Eos, the atoms in the mineral would rearrange into different crystal structures. As explained in the article:

One of these high-pressure forms is called the spinel phase [spinel group], which is found in Earth’s mantle. At even higher pressures, this phase breaks down into two different minerals: bridgmanite, the most abundant mineral phase in Earth, and ferropericlase, a magnesium-rich oxide. However, under the far more extreme pressures expected inside massive rocky planets known as super-Earths, Mg2SiO4 becomes stable again in an entirely new crystal structure called post-post-spinel. Scientists predict that this ultrahigh-pressure phase of Mg2SiO4 is one of the dominant minerals in the deep mantles of super-Earths, making its melting behavior important for understanding how these planets form and evolve.

View larger. | This is an artist’s concept of a super-Earth with a deep magma ocean generating a magnetic field. The new study suggests that the deepest parts of these magma oceans in the mantle would remain solid instead of liquid. Image via University of Rochester Laboratory for Laser Energetics/ Michael Franchot/ University of Rochester.

Recreating conditions inside super-Earths

It is difficult to recreate these kinds of conditions in a lab. So the researchers did a computer model recreation instead. They used a technique called thermodynamic integration to study the melting curve of this mineral – the bizarrely named post-post-spinel Mg2SiO4 – at up to 1,300 gigapascals of pressure.

The post-post-spinel Mg2SiO4 is a refractory mineral. That means it can withstand extremely high temperatures before it begins to melt. Pressure plays a role, too. Depending on the pressure, it melts between 9,780 K (17,144 degrees Fahrenheit or 9,507 degrees Celsius) and 14,897 K (26,350 degrees Fahrenheit or 14,620 degrees Celsius). That is much hotter than temperatures at which related minerals melt, including bridgmanite and postperovskite (MgSiO3). Postperovskite is the high-pressure form of bridgmanite, which is stable near Earth’s core-mantle boundary.

In most exoplanets, iron would end up mixing with the post-post-spinel Mg2SiO4. The researchers found that even then, the melting point for post-post-spinel Mg2SiO4 remained above the temperatures estimated for the deep mantles of most rocky planets.

Effects on super-Earths inside and out

In short, this means that many super-Earths likely have solid deep mantles. This can affect both convection inside the planet and magnetic fields outside the planet. Interestingly, another study from earlier this year found that super-Earths with powerful magnetic fields might be more likely to be able to support life.

Bottom line: Super-Earths might be solid in their deep insides, a new study says. Minerals might take unusual forms and remain solid despite the intense heat and pressure.

Source: Massive Rocky Planets May Suppress Deep Melting

Via Eos

Read more: Powerful magnetic fields on super-Earths could boost chances of life

Read more: Nearby super-Earth GJ 3378b may be a good candidate for life

The post Super-Earths might be solid deep on the inside first appeared on EarthSky.

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