This is going to be a tough one! But give it a try if you have a clear view to the east before sunrise on the mornings around August 15. How long before? Not long. You’ll have to wait for bright morning twilight – that is, until shortly before sunrise – to see Jupiter ascend over your eastern horizon. You might catch it, because Jupiter itself is bright! Mercury is fainter. But it’ll be only about one full moon width from Jupiter. Use binoculars, if you have them, to scan near the eastern horizon. After their eye-catching close encounter, Jupiter will climb higher each day in the eastern predawn sky. But Mercury will soon slip away. Chart via EarthSky.
Jupiter-Mercury conjunction August 15, 2026
Here’s a binocular view of Mercury and Jupiter in the morning twilight on August 15. Binoculars will make the planets much easier to see! Both Jupiter and Mercury will float among the stars of Cancer the Crab. At their closest, they’ll be 0.6 degree apart. So if you extend your pinky at arm’s length, you’ll be able to hide both the planets behind it. Don’t miss this conjunction if your sky allows! Chart via EarthSky.
What’s a conjunction?
Astronomers use the word conjunction to describe meetings of planets, stars and other objects in the night sky. The word conjunction comes from Latin, meaning to join together. In modern English language, conjunctions relate to clauses brought together with words like and. In astronomy, conjunctions relate to two or more objects brought together in the sky.
Technically speaking, objects are said to be in conjunction when they have the same right ascension – sort of like celestial longitude – on our sky’s dome.
Practically speaking, objects in conjunction will likely be visible near each other for some days.
Sometimes one of these objects in a conjunction is the sun, so the conjunction can’t be seen. But other conjunctions – between stars, our moon and the planets – can be truly spectacular.
Here’s what the word “conjunction” means to astronomers. You have to think of the whole sky as being divided up into a grid system, like longitude and latitude on Earth. Astronomers call the longitudinal component right ascension. And they call the latitudinal component declination. Technically speaking, 2 objects are said to be in conjunction when they have the same right ascension on our sky’s dome. And that’s what this illustration is showing. It’s showing you exactly what astronomers mean when they say the word conjunction.
We can’t see an inferior conjunction
An inferior conjunction is when an object passes between us and the sun. Any object that orbits the sun closer than Earth does might pass through inferior conjunction from time to time. That is assuming its orbit lies more or less close to the ecliptic.
Usually, though, when astronomers speak of an inferior conjunction, they’re talking about Venus or Mercury, which orbit between Earth and the sun. Astronomers sometimes refer to Venus and Mercury as inferior planets. When they’re at or near inferior conjunction, we generally can’t see them. They’re hidden in the sun’s glare. Occasionally, though, Venus or Mercury at inferior conjunction can be seen to transit across the sun’s disk.
We shouldn’t forget the moon here. It passes between Earth and the sun at new moon once each month. Therefore it would be correct, if a little unusual, to say that the moon is at inferior conjunction when it’s at its new phase.
This chart uses the orbit of Venus to show the the points of inferior and superior conjunction. Venus was last at inferior conjunction on March 23, 2025, and will be in that position again on October 24, 2026. It was last at superior conjunction on January 6, 2026, and will be in that position again on August 11, 2027. Chart via EarthSky.
We can’t see a superior conjunction either
A superior conjunction is when an object passes behind the sun from our point of view. Look at Venus’ orbit in the diagram above. Half of its conjunctions with the sun – when they come together on our sky’s dome – are inferior conjunctions. And half are superior conjunctions. It’s fun to imagine the inferior planets on an endless cycle of passing in front of the sun, as seen from Earth, then behind it, and back again, like squirrels running around a tree.
Meanwhile, the superior planets – or planets farther from the sun than Earth – can never be at inferior conjunction. Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune can never pass between us and the sun. So the superior planets only have superior conjunctions.
But other conjunctions can look beautiful
The most common – and most exciting – type of conjunction doesn’t involve the sun. Any time two objects pass each other on the sky’s dome, they’re said to be at conjunction. This sort of conjunction – maybe between two planets, or a planet and a star, or a star and the moon – happens multiple times every month. They are beautiful. The view can stop you in your tracks.
For example, if you were fortunate enough to have looked at the moon on July 21, 1969, the day that Neil Armstrong took the first step on the moon’s Sea of Tranquility, you’d have seen the moon in conjunction with Spica, the brightest star in the constellation Virgo. They were only about 2 degrees apart that night. That’s a bit more than the width of your index finger held out at arm’s length.
There are always a few particularly good conjunctions every year. On June 8-9, 2026, we were treated to a spectacular conjunction between bright planets Venus and Jupiter, as you can see below. Click here to see a full gallery of Venus-Jupiter conjunction photos captured by members of the EarthSky community.
Watch for and enjoy conjunctions
People often think about the night sky as being permanent and unchanging, at least on a human scale. If you watch the skies often, though, you’ve surely noticed that’s not true. The stars don’t move relative to each other, but they do move across the sky over the course of a single night, as Earth spins under the sky. And, from one night to the next, each star rises and sets four minutes earlier each day, as Earth moves around the sun.
Once you’ve found the ecliptic – the sun’s path across the sky – you can see where the real action is. Because they are relatively close to us, the planets and moon do move relative to each other and the stars, and quickly, from our point of view. They change their positions, appear to move closer together and farther apart, and sometimes pass by each other in the sky coming to conjunction. Of all of the pleasures of stargazing, seeing this movement of our nearest neighbors is one of the greatest.
Planetary conjunction of Venus and Jupiter on May 22, 2024, as seen by SOHO’s LASCO C3 imagery equipment aboard the spacecraft. Image via NOAA.
Bottom line: A conjunction is when two objects share the same right ascension. It means two objects are close on our sky’s dome. You hear a specific date for conjunctions. But, practically speaking, two objects near conjunction are near each other for some days. The Jupiter-Mercury conjunction of August 15 is the next planetary conjunction. Look for them before sunrise.
This is going to be a tough one! But give it a try if you have a clear view to the east before sunrise on the mornings around August 15. How long before? Not long. You’ll have to wait for bright morning twilight – that is, until shortly before sunrise – to see Jupiter ascend over your eastern horizon. You might catch it, because Jupiter itself is bright! Mercury is fainter. But it’ll be only about one full moon width from Jupiter. Use binoculars, if you have them, to scan near the eastern horizon. After their eye-catching close encounter, Jupiter will climb higher each day in the eastern predawn sky. But Mercury will soon slip away. Chart via EarthSky.
Jupiter-Mercury conjunction August 15, 2026
Here’s a binocular view of Mercury and Jupiter in the morning twilight on August 15. Binoculars will make the planets much easier to see! Both Jupiter and Mercury will float among the stars of Cancer the Crab. At their closest, they’ll be 0.6 degree apart. So if you extend your pinky at arm’s length, you’ll be able to hide both the planets behind it. Don’t miss this conjunction if your sky allows! Chart via EarthSky.
What’s a conjunction?
Astronomers use the word conjunction to describe meetings of planets, stars and other objects in the night sky. The word conjunction comes from Latin, meaning to join together. In modern English language, conjunctions relate to clauses brought together with words like and. In astronomy, conjunctions relate to two or more objects brought together in the sky.
Technically speaking, objects are said to be in conjunction when they have the same right ascension – sort of like celestial longitude – on our sky’s dome.
Practically speaking, objects in conjunction will likely be visible near each other for some days.
Sometimes one of these objects in a conjunction is the sun, so the conjunction can’t be seen. But other conjunctions – between stars, our moon and the planets – can be truly spectacular.
Here’s what the word “conjunction” means to astronomers. You have to think of the whole sky as being divided up into a grid system, like longitude and latitude on Earth. Astronomers call the longitudinal component right ascension. And they call the latitudinal component declination. Technically speaking, 2 objects are said to be in conjunction when they have the same right ascension on our sky’s dome. And that’s what this illustration is showing. It’s showing you exactly what astronomers mean when they say the word conjunction.
We can’t see an inferior conjunction
An inferior conjunction is when an object passes between us and the sun. Any object that orbits the sun closer than Earth does might pass through inferior conjunction from time to time. That is assuming its orbit lies more or less close to the ecliptic.
Usually, though, when astronomers speak of an inferior conjunction, they’re talking about Venus or Mercury, which orbit between Earth and the sun. Astronomers sometimes refer to Venus and Mercury as inferior planets. When they’re at or near inferior conjunction, we generally can’t see them. They’re hidden in the sun’s glare. Occasionally, though, Venus or Mercury at inferior conjunction can be seen to transit across the sun’s disk.
We shouldn’t forget the moon here. It passes between Earth and the sun at new moon once each month. Therefore it would be correct, if a little unusual, to say that the moon is at inferior conjunction when it’s at its new phase.
This chart uses the orbit of Venus to show the the points of inferior and superior conjunction. Venus was last at inferior conjunction on March 23, 2025, and will be in that position again on October 24, 2026. It was last at superior conjunction on January 6, 2026, and will be in that position again on August 11, 2027. Chart via EarthSky.
We can’t see a superior conjunction either
A superior conjunction is when an object passes behind the sun from our point of view. Look at Venus’ orbit in the diagram above. Half of its conjunctions with the sun – when they come together on our sky’s dome – are inferior conjunctions. And half are superior conjunctions. It’s fun to imagine the inferior planets on an endless cycle of passing in front of the sun, as seen from Earth, then behind it, and back again, like squirrels running around a tree.
Meanwhile, the superior planets – or planets farther from the sun than Earth – can never be at inferior conjunction. Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune can never pass between us and the sun. So the superior planets only have superior conjunctions.
But other conjunctions can look beautiful
The most common – and most exciting – type of conjunction doesn’t involve the sun. Any time two objects pass each other on the sky’s dome, they’re said to be at conjunction. This sort of conjunction – maybe between two planets, or a planet and a star, or a star and the moon – happens multiple times every month. They are beautiful. The view can stop you in your tracks.
For example, if you were fortunate enough to have looked at the moon on July 21, 1969, the day that Neil Armstrong took the first step on the moon’s Sea of Tranquility, you’d have seen the moon in conjunction with Spica, the brightest star in the constellation Virgo. They were only about 2 degrees apart that night. That’s a bit more than the width of your index finger held out at arm’s length.
There are always a few particularly good conjunctions every year. On June 8-9, 2026, we were treated to a spectacular conjunction between bright planets Venus and Jupiter, as you can see below. Click here to see a full gallery of Venus-Jupiter conjunction photos captured by members of the EarthSky community.
Watch for and enjoy conjunctions
People often think about the night sky as being permanent and unchanging, at least on a human scale. If you watch the skies often, though, you’ve surely noticed that’s not true. The stars don’t move relative to each other, but they do move across the sky over the course of a single night, as Earth spins under the sky. And, from one night to the next, each star rises and sets four minutes earlier each day, as Earth moves around the sun.
Once you’ve found the ecliptic – the sun’s path across the sky – you can see where the real action is. Because they are relatively close to us, the planets and moon do move relative to each other and the stars, and quickly, from our point of view. They change their positions, appear to move closer together and farther apart, and sometimes pass by each other in the sky coming to conjunction. Of all of the pleasures of stargazing, seeing this movement of our nearest neighbors is one of the greatest.
Planetary conjunction of Venus and Jupiter on May 22, 2024, as seen by SOHO’s LASCO C3 imagery equipment aboard the spacecraft. Image via NOAA.
Bottom line: A conjunction is when two objects share the same right ascension. It means two objects are close on our sky’s dome. You hear a specific date for conjunctions. But, practically speaking, two objects near conjunction are near each other for some days. The Jupiter-Mercury conjunction of August 15 is the next planetary conjunction. Look for them before sunrise.
View larger. | Artist’s representation of a large black triangular craft with a red light at each corner. Observers reported this sighting over a U.S. military base near Colorado Springs, Colorado, in October 2023. See more of the latest Pentagon UAP files below. Image via DoD.
The U.S. Pentagon released the 5th batch of its UAP files on August 7, 2026.
The release contains a mix of video, image and document files. There are 41 new files in all, and 16 are videos, 22 are documents and three are images.
The release is part of a continuing rollout of formerly classified files, every couple or few weeks. So far, there’s been no “smoking gun” to show that alien craft are visiting Earth. But the files are interesting!
The U.S. Pentagon released its 1st batch of declassified UAP/UFO materials on May 8, 2026. And now it has just made public batch 5. There are 41 new files in all in batch 5, including 16 videos, 22 documents and three images. There are no audio files this time around.
The records come from the Pentagon, FBI, CIA, State Department and Executive Office of the President.
And as usual, Sean Parnell, Assistant to the Secretary of War for Public Affairs and Chief Pentagon Spokesman, said in a statement:
Today, the Department of War is publishing the 5th release of declassified and historical Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena (UAP) files as part of the Presidential Unsealing and Reporting System for UAP Encounters (PURSUE). The collection continues to be housed on WAR.GOV/UFO, and the Department will release additional files on a rolling basis.
The Department of War and our agency partners are actively working on the next release of UAP files. The fifth release of UAP files is available now on WAR.GOV/UFO
For context, the Pentagon released a 2nd batch on May 22, a 3rd batch on June 12 and the 4th batch on July 10, all in 2026.
As has been the pattern for these releases, they are a mixed bag of old and previously known material, and newer material. Do the releases prove aliens exist, or that alien craft are visiting Earth? Not so far.
The @DeptofWar released more UAP case files, reinforcing our commitment under PURSUE to increase transparency by responsibly releasing information. We remain focused on rigorous analysis and keeping the public informed. To view Release 5: https://t.co/XtJxorypDV
— All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office (@DoW_AARO) August 7, 2026
This video from the United States Central Command shows a small dark object making erratic movements over the Gulf of Oman on September 8, 2021. Video via DoD (Public Domain)
Erratic and hovering orbs in Gulf of Oman
The batch 5 videos are again mostly the grainy FLIR footage from military platforms including aircraft. And some others are cellphone videos of computer screens on a warship.
The cellphone videos come from a supposed “encounter” on September 8, 2021, over the Gulf of Oman by Special Operations forces on an AC-130J gunship. Six of the newly-released videos are from this incident. One of the videos shows a small dark object making erratic movements.
Plus, one of the documents is an intelligence report that accompanies the videos. It noted that the personnel onboard the ship:
… observed approximately 25 instances of UAPs while conducting a live fire exercise in the Gulf of Oman.
The report also stated:
The UAPs were observed as cold orbs flying at lower altitudes between 250 to 1,300 MPH in different formations as well as maneuvering aggressively. UAPs also appeared to react to the aircraft firing its main cannon.
The report also says the orbs were about 4 feet (1.2 meters) in diameter. After a mission aircraft dropped a water-activated flare, used as a target, two of the orbs were said to “hover” over it. When the aircraft fired its cannon at the flare, the two orbs reportedly flew away rapidly, without changing altitude.
And indeed, the Pentagon’s AARO office has said for the past few years now that “small metallic orbs” are the most common type of UAP currently being reported by military personnel. That’s still true in its latest annual report for 2025.
This video from somewhere in the Middle East shows a small orb object moving over a residential area on January 1, 2025. Video via DoD (Public Domain).
More orbs in the Middle East
Another video (in various camera modes) shows an orb moving over a residential area somewhere in the Middle East on January 1, 2025. Because of the changing camera modes, the object appears white in some of the footage and dark in other parts of the footage.
Montana and Utah orbs
One of the newly released documents is a memorandum of an analysis by the U.S. Naval Photographic Interpretation Center of two well-known cases from Montana and Tremonton, Utah in 1950 and 1952, respectively. The document itself is from 1953.
The Utah video shows a cluster of small objects flying in formation. Their description was of “bright, silvery reflective disks resembling two pie pans inverted together.” The U.S. Navy Photo Interpretation Center analyzed the film for over 1,000 hours. It concluded the objects were “self-luminous, intelligently controlled and not birds, balloons or standard aircraft.”
In the Montana video, two similar kinds of objects, either spherical or disk-shaped, are seen moving together and spinning or rotating. They move in a steady line behind a water tower.
The memorandum noted that:
The Center assessed, generally, that the objects depicted in the film demonstrated characteristics that were inconsistent with those of natural phenomena or commonly known aerospace technologies.
.
And it also said that as the brightness of the objects increased, so did their apparent size.
View larger. | Illustration of large black triangular craft seen over Bagram Air Force Base in Afghanistan in June 2002. Image via DoD (Public Domain).
Colorado black triangle
Another interesting case was of a black triangular craft with a red light at each corner seen near a U.S. military base in Colorado Springs, Colorado, in October 2023. See the image at the top of this article.
In fact, black triangles have been one of the most common types of objects described in UAP lore for several decades.
Crash with deceased occupant in Brazil?
One of the more interesting documents is a Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) wire report from November 9, 1963. It reported a possible large metal sphere with a dead occupant wearing a “spacesuit” in Conde, Bahia, Brazil.
Another memo from this release, however, from the American Consulate in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, states that the report was unsubstantiated.
TIME magazine highlights UAP
TIME magazine also currently has a cover story on UAP. It’s titled ‘America Is Finally Taking Extraterrestrials Seriously.’ The cover itself says ‘The New Case for Aliens.’
Overall, it’s a good, balanced article, with coverage of many of the past and recent issues in the UAP topic, and input from witnesses, proponents and skeptics.
Bottom line: The 5th batch of the Pentagon UAP files was released on August 7, 2026. The videos, documents and images include reports of more orbs, triangles and more.
View larger. | Artist’s representation of a large black triangular craft with a red light at each corner. Observers reported this sighting over a U.S. military base near Colorado Springs, Colorado, in October 2023. See more of the latest Pentagon UAP files below. Image via DoD.
The U.S. Pentagon released the 5th batch of its UAP files on August 7, 2026.
The release contains a mix of video, image and document files. There are 41 new files in all, and 16 are videos, 22 are documents and three are images.
The release is part of a continuing rollout of formerly classified files, every couple or few weeks. So far, there’s been no “smoking gun” to show that alien craft are visiting Earth. But the files are interesting!
The U.S. Pentagon released its 1st batch of declassified UAP/UFO materials on May 8, 2026. And now it has just made public batch 5. There are 41 new files in all in batch 5, including 16 videos, 22 documents and three images. There are no audio files this time around.
The records come from the Pentagon, FBI, CIA, State Department and Executive Office of the President.
And as usual, Sean Parnell, Assistant to the Secretary of War for Public Affairs and Chief Pentagon Spokesman, said in a statement:
Today, the Department of War is publishing the 5th release of declassified and historical Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena (UAP) files as part of the Presidential Unsealing and Reporting System for UAP Encounters (PURSUE). The collection continues to be housed on WAR.GOV/UFO, and the Department will release additional files on a rolling basis.
The Department of War and our agency partners are actively working on the next release of UAP files. The fifth release of UAP files is available now on WAR.GOV/UFO
For context, the Pentagon released a 2nd batch on May 22, a 3rd batch on June 12 and the 4th batch on July 10, all in 2026.
As has been the pattern for these releases, they are a mixed bag of old and previously known material, and newer material. Do the releases prove aliens exist, or that alien craft are visiting Earth? Not so far.
The @DeptofWar released more UAP case files, reinforcing our commitment under PURSUE to increase transparency by responsibly releasing information. We remain focused on rigorous analysis and keeping the public informed. To view Release 5: https://t.co/XtJxorypDV
— All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office (@DoW_AARO) August 7, 2026
This video from the United States Central Command shows a small dark object making erratic movements over the Gulf of Oman on September 8, 2021. Video via DoD (Public Domain)
Erratic and hovering orbs in Gulf of Oman
The batch 5 videos are again mostly the grainy FLIR footage from military platforms including aircraft. And some others are cellphone videos of computer screens on a warship.
The cellphone videos come from a supposed “encounter” on September 8, 2021, over the Gulf of Oman by Special Operations forces on an AC-130J gunship. Six of the newly-released videos are from this incident. One of the videos shows a small dark object making erratic movements.
Plus, one of the documents is an intelligence report that accompanies the videos. It noted that the personnel onboard the ship:
… observed approximately 25 instances of UAPs while conducting a live fire exercise in the Gulf of Oman.
The report also stated:
The UAPs were observed as cold orbs flying at lower altitudes between 250 to 1,300 MPH in different formations as well as maneuvering aggressively. UAPs also appeared to react to the aircraft firing its main cannon.
The report also says the orbs were about 4 feet (1.2 meters) in diameter. After a mission aircraft dropped a water-activated flare, used as a target, two of the orbs were said to “hover” over it. When the aircraft fired its cannon at the flare, the two orbs reportedly flew away rapidly, without changing altitude.
And indeed, the Pentagon’s AARO office has said for the past few years now that “small metallic orbs” are the most common type of UAP currently being reported by military personnel. That’s still true in its latest annual report for 2025.
This video from somewhere in the Middle East shows a small orb object moving over a residential area on January 1, 2025. Video via DoD (Public Domain).
More orbs in the Middle East
Another video (in various camera modes) shows an orb moving over a residential area somewhere in the Middle East on January 1, 2025. Because of the changing camera modes, the object appears white in some of the footage and dark in other parts of the footage.
Montana and Utah orbs
One of the newly released documents is a memorandum of an analysis by the U.S. Naval Photographic Interpretation Center of two well-known cases from Montana and Tremonton, Utah in 1950 and 1952, respectively. The document itself is from 1953.
The Utah video shows a cluster of small objects flying in formation. Their description was of “bright, silvery reflective disks resembling two pie pans inverted together.” The U.S. Navy Photo Interpretation Center analyzed the film for over 1,000 hours. It concluded the objects were “self-luminous, intelligently controlled and not birds, balloons or standard aircraft.”
In the Montana video, two similar kinds of objects, either spherical or disk-shaped, are seen moving together and spinning or rotating. They move in a steady line behind a water tower.
The memorandum noted that:
The Center assessed, generally, that the objects depicted in the film demonstrated characteristics that were inconsistent with those of natural phenomena or commonly known aerospace technologies.
.
And it also said that as the brightness of the objects increased, so did their apparent size.
View larger. | Illustration of large black triangular craft seen over Bagram Air Force Base in Afghanistan in June 2002. Image via DoD (Public Domain).
Colorado black triangle
Another interesting case was of a black triangular craft with a red light at each corner seen near a U.S. military base in Colorado Springs, Colorado, in October 2023. See the image at the top of this article.
In fact, black triangles have been one of the most common types of objects described in UAP lore for several decades.
Crash with deceased occupant in Brazil?
One of the more interesting documents is a Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) wire report from November 9, 1963. It reported a possible large metal sphere with a dead occupant wearing a “spacesuit” in Conde, Bahia, Brazil.
Another memo from this release, however, from the American Consulate in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, states that the report was unsubstantiated.
TIME magazine highlights UAP
TIME magazine also currently has a cover story on UAP. It’s titled ‘America Is Finally Taking Extraterrestrials Seriously.’ The cover itself says ‘The New Case for Aliens.’
Overall, it’s a good, balanced article, with coverage of many of the past and recent issues in the UAP topic, and input from witnesses, proponents and skeptics.
Bottom line: The 5th batch of the Pentagon UAP files was released on August 7, 2026. The videos, documents and images include reports of more orbs, triangles and more.
How do giant trees manage to transport water from their roots to their leaves? Here’s a 187-foot (57-meter) tall dipterocarp tree (the tallest flowering trees in the world). Image via Palasiah Jotan. Used with permission.
For decades, scientists thought height would eventually become a disadvantage for the world’s tallest trees. The farther water had to travel from roots to leaves, the harder it seemed to move it all the way to the canopy. But a team of researchers from the University of Exeter and Cardiff University has discovered that giant tropical trees have evolved ways to overcome this challenge, even when they grow taller than 230 feet (70 meters).
The researchers published their findings in the peer-reviewed journal Science on July 2, 2026.
When height seemed like a limit
Trees do not have a heart or a pump to move water from their roots to their leaves. Instead, they rely on thousands of tiny vessels running through their trunks. As water evaporates from leaves, it creates a pulling force that draws water upwards from the roots.
For a tree several meters tall, this process already requires a remarkable transport system. For a giant tree reaching more than 230 feet (70 meters) into the canopy, the challenge becomes far greater. Water must travel that entire distance through the trunk, and even small disruptions in this system can affect the tree’s ability to function and grow.
This led scientists to think that height placed a natural limit on tree growth. According to this theory, the tallest trees should struggle to transport water efficiently, reducing their ability to photosynthesize and grow. Their water transport systems should also make them more vulnerable during droughts.
However, the world’s tallest flowering trees (dipterocarp trees) appear to have developed ways to overcome these physical challenges. Professor Lucy Rowland from the University of Exeter explained:
Trees contain lots of thin, hollow vessels and they suck water upwards by creating low pressure at the top. These vessels have evolved intricate adaptations that can maintain the water in liquid form, even under the extreme low pressures required to move to the top of trees which can reach over 80 metres [262 feet].
The taller the tree, the greater the hydraulic challenge, or so scientists thought … Giant dipterocarps appear to have found a way around it. Image via Palasiah Jotan. Used with permission.
How giant trees overcome the challenge of height
To understand how these trees manage such extraordinary sizes, researchers from the University of Exeter and Cardiff University studied dipterocarp trees in Malaysian Borneo. The trees ranged from 23 to 233 feet (7 to 71 meters) tall.
The team measured different traits related to water transport at multiple points along each tree. They also examined trunk growth rates before, during and after the severe El Niño drought period of 2023–2024.
The researchers found that taller trees compensate for the challenges of their size in several ways.
Their water-conducting vessels become wider closer to the ground, helping move water more effectively through the trunk. Their leaves also adapt to tolerate greater levels of water stress before they begin to wilt.
Together, these adjustments allow giant dipterocarps to maintain an efficient water transport system. This works despite the enormous distance between their roots and their highest branches. Rowland said:
Our results challenge this by showing that the hydraulic systems of very tall dipterocarp trees are perfectly evolved for their height, and should not suffer more than small dipterocarp trees exposed to the same drought conditions.
In the Bornean rainforest, researchers studied trees ranging from 23 to 233 feet (7 to 71 meters) tall to uncover how their hydraulic systems adapt to extreme heights. Here’s a climber measuring the stem diameter at the upper trunk of a dipterocarp tree. Video via Masliadi bin Asri. Used with permission.
A drought tested an old prediction
The researchers also investigated whether extreme height actually made these trees less resilient when water became scarce.
If the traditional theory was correct, the tallest trees should have experienced a greater decline in growth than smaller trees during the El Niño drought.
However, the team found no height-related loss in growth. The tallest trees did not show a greater disadvantage simply because they were larger.
The finding does not mean tropical forests are safe from climate change or that giant trees face no threats. Instead, it suggests that height alone does not make these trees more vulnerable to drought than smaller trees exposed to the same conditions.
Why giant trees matter for the climate
The importance of these findings goes far beyond understanding how trees move water.
Trees play a central role in the global carbon cycle. Through photosynthesis, they absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and use that carbon to build their trunks, branches, leaves and roots.
Beyond adding new growth, trees continue to store carbon inside their living tissues throughout their lives. A giant tree can therefore act as a long-term carbon reservoir, keeping carbon locked away for decades or even centuries.
When a large tree dies, burns or decomposes, some of that stored carbon can return to the atmosphere as CO2, contributing to the greenhouse effect. This is why protecting the world’s largest trees matters not only for biodiversity, but also for the climate. Paulo Bittencourt from Cardiff University said:
Understanding tall trees is vital because the tallest 1% of trees store more than half of above-ground carbon in forests.
The tallest trees are especially important because their size allows them to store enormous amounts of carbon. Losing these giants would not only affect forest ecosystems but could also reduce one of nature’s most effective ways of keeping carbon out of the atmosphere.
Researchers found that extreme height did not make giant trees more vulnerable to drought. Their enormous size also makes them important long-term carbon stores in tropical forests. Here, a tree climber works in the canopy of a dipterocarp tree during sample collection. Video via Palasiah Jotan. Used with permission.
Protecting the giants of Borneo
Dipterocarp species dominate the rainforests of Southeast Asia and include some of the tallest flowering trees on Earth. These forests are not only home to remarkable giants but also support some of the planet’s richest ecosystems.
The study shows that extreme height does not make these trees as vulnerable to drought as scientists once thought. However, this resilience does not reduce the need to protect them. Protecting these forests matters because they store vast amounts of carbon and provide habitat for countless species.
Palasiah Jotan, a Malaysian PhD researcher and co-author of the study, hopes these findings will strengthen efforts to protect Borneo’s rainforests. The researchers also say more work is needed to understand whether other tall tree species have evolved similar adaptations.
For now, the study challenges a decades-old assumption: reaching extreme heights does not necessarily make trees weaker. Instead, these forest giants appear to have evolved sophisticated ways to thrive at the limits of plant growth.
This is co-author Palasiah Jotan climbing a dipterocarp tree. Borneo’s giant dipterocarps are more than the tallest trees in the forest: they are vital carbon stores and provide habitat for countless species. Their loss would be felt far beyond the forest where they grow. Image via Arne Scheire. Used with permission.
Bottom line: Giant trees have evolved remarkable adaptations that allow them to reach extreme heights while maintaining efficient water transport.
How do giant trees manage to transport water from their roots to their leaves? Here’s a 187-foot (57-meter) tall dipterocarp tree (the tallest flowering trees in the world). Image via Palasiah Jotan. Used with permission.
For decades, scientists thought height would eventually become a disadvantage for the world’s tallest trees. The farther water had to travel from roots to leaves, the harder it seemed to move it all the way to the canopy. But a team of researchers from the University of Exeter and Cardiff University has discovered that giant tropical trees have evolved ways to overcome this challenge, even when they grow taller than 230 feet (70 meters).
The researchers published their findings in the peer-reviewed journal Science on July 2, 2026.
When height seemed like a limit
Trees do not have a heart or a pump to move water from their roots to their leaves. Instead, they rely on thousands of tiny vessels running through their trunks. As water evaporates from leaves, it creates a pulling force that draws water upwards from the roots.
For a tree several meters tall, this process already requires a remarkable transport system. For a giant tree reaching more than 230 feet (70 meters) into the canopy, the challenge becomes far greater. Water must travel that entire distance through the trunk, and even small disruptions in this system can affect the tree’s ability to function and grow.
This led scientists to think that height placed a natural limit on tree growth. According to this theory, the tallest trees should struggle to transport water efficiently, reducing their ability to photosynthesize and grow. Their water transport systems should also make them more vulnerable during droughts.
However, the world’s tallest flowering trees (dipterocarp trees) appear to have developed ways to overcome these physical challenges. Professor Lucy Rowland from the University of Exeter explained:
Trees contain lots of thin, hollow vessels and they suck water upwards by creating low pressure at the top. These vessels have evolved intricate adaptations that can maintain the water in liquid form, even under the extreme low pressures required to move to the top of trees which can reach over 80 metres [262 feet].
The taller the tree, the greater the hydraulic challenge, or so scientists thought … Giant dipterocarps appear to have found a way around it. Image via Palasiah Jotan. Used with permission.
How giant trees overcome the challenge of height
To understand how these trees manage such extraordinary sizes, researchers from the University of Exeter and Cardiff University studied dipterocarp trees in Malaysian Borneo. The trees ranged from 23 to 233 feet (7 to 71 meters) tall.
The team measured different traits related to water transport at multiple points along each tree. They also examined trunk growth rates before, during and after the severe El Niño drought period of 2023–2024.
The researchers found that taller trees compensate for the challenges of their size in several ways.
Their water-conducting vessels become wider closer to the ground, helping move water more effectively through the trunk. Their leaves also adapt to tolerate greater levels of water stress before they begin to wilt.
Together, these adjustments allow giant dipterocarps to maintain an efficient water transport system. This works despite the enormous distance between their roots and their highest branches. Rowland said:
Our results challenge this by showing that the hydraulic systems of very tall dipterocarp trees are perfectly evolved for their height, and should not suffer more than small dipterocarp trees exposed to the same drought conditions.
In the Bornean rainforest, researchers studied trees ranging from 23 to 233 feet (7 to 71 meters) tall to uncover how their hydraulic systems adapt to extreme heights. Here’s a climber measuring the stem diameter at the upper trunk of a dipterocarp tree. Video via Masliadi bin Asri. Used with permission.
A drought tested an old prediction
The researchers also investigated whether extreme height actually made these trees less resilient when water became scarce.
If the traditional theory was correct, the tallest trees should have experienced a greater decline in growth than smaller trees during the El Niño drought.
However, the team found no height-related loss in growth. The tallest trees did not show a greater disadvantage simply because they were larger.
The finding does not mean tropical forests are safe from climate change or that giant trees face no threats. Instead, it suggests that height alone does not make these trees more vulnerable to drought than smaller trees exposed to the same conditions.
Why giant trees matter for the climate
The importance of these findings goes far beyond understanding how trees move water.
Trees play a central role in the global carbon cycle. Through photosynthesis, they absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and use that carbon to build their trunks, branches, leaves and roots.
Beyond adding new growth, trees continue to store carbon inside their living tissues throughout their lives. A giant tree can therefore act as a long-term carbon reservoir, keeping carbon locked away for decades or even centuries.
When a large tree dies, burns or decomposes, some of that stored carbon can return to the atmosphere as CO2, contributing to the greenhouse effect. This is why protecting the world’s largest trees matters not only for biodiversity, but also for the climate. Paulo Bittencourt from Cardiff University said:
Understanding tall trees is vital because the tallest 1% of trees store more than half of above-ground carbon in forests.
The tallest trees are especially important because their size allows them to store enormous amounts of carbon. Losing these giants would not only affect forest ecosystems but could also reduce one of nature’s most effective ways of keeping carbon out of the atmosphere.
Researchers found that extreme height did not make giant trees more vulnerable to drought. Their enormous size also makes them important long-term carbon stores in tropical forests. Here, a tree climber works in the canopy of a dipterocarp tree during sample collection. Video via Palasiah Jotan. Used with permission.
Protecting the giants of Borneo
Dipterocarp species dominate the rainforests of Southeast Asia and include some of the tallest flowering trees on Earth. These forests are not only home to remarkable giants but also support some of the planet’s richest ecosystems.
The study shows that extreme height does not make these trees as vulnerable to drought as scientists once thought. However, this resilience does not reduce the need to protect them. Protecting these forests matters because they store vast amounts of carbon and provide habitat for countless species.
Palasiah Jotan, a Malaysian PhD researcher and co-author of the study, hopes these findings will strengthen efforts to protect Borneo’s rainforests. The researchers also say more work is needed to understand whether other tall tree species have evolved similar adaptations.
For now, the study challenges a decades-old assumption: reaching extreme heights does not necessarily make trees weaker. Instead, these forest giants appear to have evolved sophisticated ways to thrive at the limits of plant growth.
This is co-author Palasiah Jotan climbing a dipterocarp tree. Borneo’s giant dipterocarps are more than the tallest trees in the forest: they are vital carbon stores and provide habitat for countless species. Their loss would be felt far beyond the forest where they grow. Image via Arne Scheire. Used with permission.
Bottom line: Giant trees have evolved remarkable adaptations that allow them to reach extreme heights while maintaining efficient water transport.
Scientists used the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope – on the summit of the Haleakal? volcano on the island of Maui, Hawaii – to obtain this image of the sun. It’s the highest-resolution images of the sun’s surface (photosphere) yet. In the process they also discovered Kelvin-Helmholtz instability on the sun’s surface. Video via NSO.
The world’s most powerful solar telescope – the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope in Hawaii – combined with computer simulations to find the signature of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability.
It happens when 2 fluid or gas layers slide past each, creating friction (or “shear”) along their boundary. The curling, vortex patterns resembling breaking ocean waves or wind-driven clouds on Earth.
The discovery helps reveal the fundamental physics of the sun and other stars, these scientists say. It also can help people prepare for solar bursts that can affect satellites, power grids and other earthly technology.
On August 5, 2026, the U.S. National Science Foundation National Solar Observatory (NSF NSO) announced what they said is a groundbreaking discovery in the field of solar physics. They said it could fundamentally change how we understand the physical mechanisms driving solar activity and its impacts on life on Earth.
A team of international researchers has discovered Kelvin-Helmholtz instability in the form of small, swirling, whirlpool-like patterns on the surface of the sun (the photosphere).
The researchers from the National Solar Observatory, the NCAR High Altitude Observatory , and the German Max Planck Institut für Sonnensystemforschung published their study in the journal Nature on August 5, 2026.
And the research is based on data collected with the world’s largest solar telescope, the NSF Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope. It’s built and operated by the National Solar Observatory on the island of Maui, Hawaii.
Ground-breaking new images
The time-lapse video (above) and images released reveal a solar landscape unlike any seen before.
They uncover small-scale and dynamic swirls everywhere at the edges of magnetic areas. This allowed for the unambiguous identification of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability in the photosphere.
And it provides the first experimental confirmation of a phenomenon that has long been predicted by theory. David Boboltz, Deputy Director at the National Solar Observatory, said:
We believe that the discovery of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability in the solar photosphere, backed up by analysis of numerical simulations, is a major step forward in our understanding of the dynamics and evolution of solar and stellar plasma, and will serve as a basis for future discoveries.
The highest-resolution image of the sun’s surface (photosphere) ever captured. The Inouye Solar Telescope took this image at 416 nm. It reveals deformed boundaries of magnetic elements and ultra-fine scale stripes. Both are associated with Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. Image via NSF/NSO/AURA/MPS.
An explanation of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability
An effect caused by fluid motion, KHI occurs when two fluids slide past each other at different velocities. This creates a “shear” at the interface. And it causes small disturbances to grow into striking, wave-like or spiraling vortices that look like breaking ocean waves.
Since its original formulation by Lord Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz around 1870, KHI has been observed and investigated across many areas of physics, including fluid dynamics, meteorology, oceanography, heliosphysics, and astrophysics. We can observe the instability at a variety of scales. This includes small lake and ocean waves (in windy conditions) and cloud formations on Earth to the atmospheres of gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn. And we can even see the interaction of the solar wind with planetary magnetospheres within our solar system.
The sun’s explosive events
The swirling vortices of magnetic solar plasma have become an area of increased interest for solar physicists. They could be an effective source of free magnetic energy. This energy powers major solar activity. That includes explosive events from tiny nano-flares to massive flares, jets and coronal mass ejections. These are the main contributors to space weather. And they can severely disrupt our modern technological infrastructure, including power grids, satellites, GPS navigation and global communications.
The leading theory on how the sun builds up magnetic energy is called flux braiding. As magnetic field lines twist around each other – like braiding hair – they create a tense, unstable setup. When that tension is rapidly released, the tangled magnetic lines snap, cross over each other and reconnect in new shapes (a process called magnetic reconnection). This sudden rearrangement releases a burst of energy as the system settles into a calmer, lower-energy state.
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability may drive the activity
What scientists don’t fully understand yet is what causes the twisting and braiding to happen in the first place. This new discovery – those small swirling patterns (from the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability) – might be part of the answer. Since the swirls seem to be happening constantly and everywhere on the sun’s surface where there is a strong enough magnetic field, they could be the everyday “engine” that keeps twisting the magnetic field lines and setting the whole process in motion.
Friedrich Wöger, Senior Scientist at the National Solar Observatory, said:
We are only at the beginning of recognizing the wide-reaching impact the discovery of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability has on our understanding of the connection between the magnetized plasma motion and the energy transport and release into the upper solar atmosphere.
Inouye Solar Telescope data obtained at the wavelength 416 nm, with 3 zoomed regions. Three selected close-up areas show the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability on the sun. Video via NSF/NSO/AURA/MPS.
Inouye observations, simulations and theory align
In their Nature paper, the team analyzed and compared the high-resolution Inouye observations with computer simulations of the solar photosphere created with a highly specialized code built and maintained by international teams including HAO and MPS (MPS/University of Chicago Radiative MHD, or “MURaM”).
These computer simulations provided by HAO are built using basic physics equations. The equations describe what’s happening in the sun’s atmosphere and are an important tool in the interpretation of scientific data. The simulations allow the scientists to “see” things that are hard or impossible to measure directly by observation. It gives insight into processes that would otherwise stay hidden.
Combination of data from the NASA/SDO satellite, the NSF Inouye Solar Telescope VBI instrument, the MPS camera and the HAO MuRAM simulation. This demonstrates the high detail from the Inouye Solar Telescope. In the last part of the movie, the HAO MURaM simulation data is overlaid for both the synthesized intensity and the vertical magnetic field component that is finally displayed in three dimensions. Video via NSF/NSO/AURA/MPS/HAO/NASA/SDO/AIA.
Observations meet simulations
In the case of this work, the scientists found dozens of vortex-like structures along the edges of magnetic areas both in the observations and simulations. And they had strikingly similar characteristics and dynamics. For example, the average distance between vortices, known as the “instability wavelength,” ranged between 50–65 km in both cases. The study shows that the sun’s constantly bubbling surface, or granulation, interacts with magnetic structures to create areas where neighboring layers move at different speeds. And that provides the conditions necessary to trigger KHI.
Matthias Rempel, Senior Scientist at the High Altitude Observatory, said:
It is very exciting to see that the highest-resolution observations of the solar photosphere revealed a new dynamical regime in the form of KH vortices at the edges of magnetic field concentrations. These observations also provide the highest resolution validation of solar magnetohydrodynamic simulations to date, and the agreement in physical details is impressive.
The team’s advanced analyses of the Inouye observations and the computer simulations, combined with their agreement with analytical theory, led to the conclusion that the swirling vortices, and the fast-moving, finest-scale dark stripes (“striations”), found in both the observations and simulations are without a doubt produced by KHI.
A side-by-side comparison of a real observation from the Inouye Solar Telescope (top left) and a synthetic image from computer simulations (top right). The remarkable agreement between the 2 allows scientists to confirm the origin of the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability. This is a universal physical phenomenon that occurs when adjacent layers of fluid or gas move at different speeds. It creates swirling patterns at their interface. A simulated map of the sun’s surface magnetic field (bottom right) confirms that these processes physically bend and deform the boundaries of the magnetic elements. Image via NSF/NSO/AURA/HAO.
Implications for the solar atmosphere and coronal heating mystery
Thomas Rimmele, Chief Technologist at the National Solar Observatory, said:
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability is likely a mechanism that contributes to the heating of the outer atmosphere and is part of the solution of the longstanding enigma of why stars have a million-degrees-Kelvin-hot corona.
The data also shows that this swirling effect (KHI) efficiently mixes magnetized and non-magnetized plasma on the sun’s surface. It enhances the spreading out or diffusion of magnetic fields throughout the solar atmosphere. The diffusion resulting from the KHI is a key factor scientists use when building models to predict how magnetic activity changes over time. This is not just for our sun, but for other stars too.
David Kuridze, Astronomer at the National Solar Observatory, said:
The sun’s magnetic field is generated by dynamo processes that act like giant cosmic engines that turn the star’s rotational energy into magnetic fields. However, because the solar magnetic cycle is only 11 years, a remarkably rapid timescale in cosmic terms, the generated magnetic flux must dissipate efficiently. Current models struggle to explain this rapid diffusion. The Kelvin-Helmholtz instability we discovered in the solar photosphere can act as a key source of this missing magnetic diffusion.
Looking ahead
Scientists are now moving toward the next phase of analysis. This phase includes using computer programs that can automatically spot and study these swirling patterns. And they are aided by the high resolution data from the Inouye Solar Telescope.
This next phase of research will help in two main ways. It’ll show scientists more about how much energy these KHIs can carry up into the sun’s higher atmosphere, where it helps heat things up. And it’ll also help scientists figure out just how much they affect the way magnetic fields spread out in the lower parts of the sun’s atmosphere.
Jacqueline Keane, NSF Program Director for the National Solar Observatory, said:
To understand the dynamic space weather that affects Earth, we have to see the small-scale processes driving it. For decades, seeing these vortices at such tiny scales remained elusive. By pairing a massive four-meter mirror with state-of-the-art optics and instruments, the NSF Inouye Solar Telescope delivers the resolving power needed to reveal these ultrafine details for the first time, enabling discoveries that were once beyond our reach.
Bottom line: The Inouye Solar Telescope has captured the highest-resolution images of the sun’s surface yet. These images show Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities, which may help explain why the sun’s surface gets so hot and explosive.
Scientists used the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope – on the summit of the Haleakal? volcano on the island of Maui, Hawaii – to obtain this image of the sun. It’s the highest-resolution images of the sun’s surface (photosphere) yet. In the process they also discovered Kelvin-Helmholtz instability on the sun’s surface. Video via NSO.
The world’s most powerful solar telescope – the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope in Hawaii – combined with computer simulations to find the signature of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability.
It happens when 2 fluid or gas layers slide past each, creating friction (or “shear”) along their boundary. The curling, vortex patterns resembling breaking ocean waves or wind-driven clouds on Earth.
The discovery helps reveal the fundamental physics of the sun and other stars, these scientists say. It also can help people prepare for solar bursts that can affect satellites, power grids and other earthly technology.
On August 5, 2026, the U.S. National Science Foundation National Solar Observatory (NSF NSO) announced what they said is a groundbreaking discovery in the field of solar physics. They said it could fundamentally change how we understand the physical mechanisms driving solar activity and its impacts on life on Earth.
A team of international researchers has discovered Kelvin-Helmholtz instability in the form of small, swirling, whirlpool-like patterns on the surface of the sun (the photosphere).
The researchers from the National Solar Observatory, the NCAR High Altitude Observatory , and the German Max Planck Institut für Sonnensystemforschung published their study in the journal Nature on August 5, 2026.
And the research is based on data collected with the world’s largest solar telescope, the NSF Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope. It’s built and operated by the National Solar Observatory on the island of Maui, Hawaii.
Ground-breaking new images
The time-lapse video (above) and images released reveal a solar landscape unlike any seen before.
They uncover small-scale and dynamic swirls everywhere at the edges of magnetic areas. This allowed for the unambiguous identification of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability in the photosphere.
And it provides the first experimental confirmation of a phenomenon that has long been predicted by theory. David Boboltz, Deputy Director at the National Solar Observatory, said:
We believe that the discovery of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability in the solar photosphere, backed up by analysis of numerical simulations, is a major step forward in our understanding of the dynamics and evolution of solar and stellar plasma, and will serve as a basis for future discoveries.
The highest-resolution image of the sun’s surface (photosphere) ever captured. The Inouye Solar Telescope took this image at 416 nm. It reveals deformed boundaries of magnetic elements and ultra-fine scale stripes. Both are associated with Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. Image via NSF/NSO/AURA/MPS.
An explanation of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability
An effect caused by fluid motion, KHI occurs when two fluids slide past each other at different velocities. This creates a “shear” at the interface. And it causes small disturbances to grow into striking, wave-like or spiraling vortices that look like breaking ocean waves.
Since its original formulation by Lord Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz around 1870, KHI has been observed and investigated across many areas of physics, including fluid dynamics, meteorology, oceanography, heliosphysics, and astrophysics. We can observe the instability at a variety of scales. This includes small lake and ocean waves (in windy conditions) and cloud formations on Earth to the atmospheres of gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn. And we can even see the interaction of the solar wind with planetary magnetospheres within our solar system.
The sun’s explosive events
The swirling vortices of magnetic solar plasma have become an area of increased interest for solar physicists. They could be an effective source of free magnetic energy. This energy powers major solar activity. That includes explosive events from tiny nano-flares to massive flares, jets and coronal mass ejections. These are the main contributors to space weather. And they can severely disrupt our modern technological infrastructure, including power grids, satellites, GPS navigation and global communications.
The leading theory on how the sun builds up magnetic energy is called flux braiding. As magnetic field lines twist around each other – like braiding hair – they create a tense, unstable setup. When that tension is rapidly released, the tangled magnetic lines snap, cross over each other and reconnect in new shapes (a process called magnetic reconnection). This sudden rearrangement releases a burst of energy as the system settles into a calmer, lower-energy state.
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability may drive the activity
What scientists don’t fully understand yet is what causes the twisting and braiding to happen in the first place. This new discovery – those small swirling patterns (from the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability) – might be part of the answer. Since the swirls seem to be happening constantly and everywhere on the sun’s surface where there is a strong enough magnetic field, they could be the everyday “engine” that keeps twisting the magnetic field lines and setting the whole process in motion.
Friedrich Wöger, Senior Scientist at the National Solar Observatory, said:
We are only at the beginning of recognizing the wide-reaching impact the discovery of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability has on our understanding of the connection between the magnetized plasma motion and the energy transport and release into the upper solar atmosphere.
Inouye Solar Telescope data obtained at the wavelength 416 nm, with 3 zoomed regions. Three selected close-up areas show the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability on the sun. Video via NSF/NSO/AURA/MPS.
Inouye observations, simulations and theory align
In their Nature paper, the team analyzed and compared the high-resolution Inouye observations with computer simulations of the solar photosphere created with a highly specialized code built and maintained by international teams including HAO and MPS (MPS/University of Chicago Radiative MHD, or “MURaM”).
These computer simulations provided by HAO are built using basic physics equations. The equations describe what’s happening in the sun’s atmosphere and are an important tool in the interpretation of scientific data. The simulations allow the scientists to “see” things that are hard or impossible to measure directly by observation. It gives insight into processes that would otherwise stay hidden.
Combination of data from the NASA/SDO satellite, the NSF Inouye Solar Telescope VBI instrument, the MPS camera and the HAO MuRAM simulation. This demonstrates the high detail from the Inouye Solar Telescope. In the last part of the movie, the HAO MURaM simulation data is overlaid for both the synthesized intensity and the vertical magnetic field component that is finally displayed in three dimensions. Video via NSF/NSO/AURA/MPS/HAO/NASA/SDO/AIA.
Observations meet simulations
In the case of this work, the scientists found dozens of vortex-like structures along the edges of magnetic areas both in the observations and simulations. And they had strikingly similar characteristics and dynamics. For example, the average distance between vortices, known as the “instability wavelength,” ranged between 50–65 km in both cases. The study shows that the sun’s constantly bubbling surface, or granulation, interacts with magnetic structures to create areas where neighboring layers move at different speeds. And that provides the conditions necessary to trigger KHI.
Matthias Rempel, Senior Scientist at the High Altitude Observatory, said:
It is very exciting to see that the highest-resolution observations of the solar photosphere revealed a new dynamical regime in the form of KH vortices at the edges of magnetic field concentrations. These observations also provide the highest resolution validation of solar magnetohydrodynamic simulations to date, and the agreement in physical details is impressive.
The team’s advanced analyses of the Inouye observations and the computer simulations, combined with their agreement with analytical theory, led to the conclusion that the swirling vortices, and the fast-moving, finest-scale dark stripes (“striations”), found in both the observations and simulations are without a doubt produced by KHI.
A side-by-side comparison of a real observation from the Inouye Solar Telescope (top left) and a synthetic image from computer simulations (top right). The remarkable agreement between the 2 allows scientists to confirm the origin of the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability. This is a universal physical phenomenon that occurs when adjacent layers of fluid or gas move at different speeds. It creates swirling patterns at their interface. A simulated map of the sun’s surface magnetic field (bottom right) confirms that these processes physically bend and deform the boundaries of the magnetic elements. Image via NSF/NSO/AURA/HAO.
Implications for the solar atmosphere and coronal heating mystery
Thomas Rimmele, Chief Technologist at the National Solar Observatory, said:
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability is likely a mechanism that contributes to the heating of the outer atmosphere and is part of the solution of the longstanding enigma of why stars have a million-degrees-Kelvin-hot corona.
The data also shows that this swirling effect (KHI) efficiently mixes magnetized and non-magnetized plasma on the sun’s surface. It enhances the spreading out or diffusion of magnetic fields throughout the solar atmosphere. The diffusion resulting from the KHI is a key factor scientists use when building models to predict how magnetic activity changes over time. This is not just for our sun, but for other stars too.
David Kuridze, Astronomer at the National Solar Observatory, said:
The sun’s magnetic field is generated by dynamo processes that act like giant cosmic engines that turn the star’s rotational energy into magnetic fields. However, because the solar magnetic cycle is only 11 years, a remarkably rapid timescale in cosmic terms, the generated magnetic flux must dissipate efficiently. Current models struggle to explain this rapid diffusion. The Kelvin-Helmholtz instability we discovered in the solar photosphere can act as a key source of this missing magnetic diffusion.
Looking ahead
Scientists are now moving toward the next phase of analysis. This phase includes using computer programs that can automatically spot and study these swirling patterns. And they are aided by the high resolution data from the Inouye Solar Telescope.
This next phase of research will help in two main ways. It’ll show scientists more about how much energy these KHIs can carry up into the sun’s higher atmosphere, where it helps heat things up. And it’ll also help scientists figure out just how much they affect the way magnetic fields spread out in the lower parts of the sun’s atmosphere.
Jacqueline Keane, NSF Program Director for the National Solar Observatory, said:
To understand the dynamic space weather that affects Earth, we have to see the small-scale processes driving it. For decades, seeing these vortices at such tiny scales remained elusive. By pairing a massive four-meter mirror with state-of-the-art optics and instruments, the NSF Inouye Solar Telescope delivers the resolving power needed to reveal these ultrafine details for the first time, enabling discoveries that were once beyond our reach.
Bottom line: The Inouye Solar Telescope has captured the highest-resolution images of the sun’s surface yet. These images show Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities, which may help explain why the sun’s surface gets so hot and explosive.
View at EarthSky Community Photos. | P Govardhana Siddartha of India submitted this composite of Venus taken over 4 months. Venus was recorded from December 2024 to March 2025. Venus was at its greatest distance from the sun in January 2025. You can see how the size of Venus increases and the phase decreases on its way to inferior conjunction. That’s when it passes between Earth and the sun which last occurred in March 2025 and will occur next on October 24, 2026. Thank you, P Govardhana!
Venus after sunset in August 2026
In August 2026, Venus – Earth’s brightest neighboring planet – will be shining in the western twilight after sunset. You can’t miss Venus! It’s exceedingly bright and will penetrate the bright twilight. It’ll remain visible in the evening sky through October. Greatest elongation – when Venus will reach its farthest distance from the sunset – is at 6 UTC on August 15, 2026. Venus will reach its greatest brilliancy in the evening sky on September 18, 2026.
As the 2nd planet in orbit (going outward from the sun), Venus is bound by an invisible tether to the sun in our sky. It’s always east before sunrise, or west after sunset (never overhead at midnight). Venus is the brightest planet visible from Earth and shines brilliantly throughout every morning or evening apparition. Greatest elongation happens when Venus is farthest from the sun on the sky’s dome.
For precise sun and Venus rising times at your location:
Greatest elongation will occur at 6 UTC on August 15, 2026 (1 a.m. CDT). Venus will be in our evening sky, in the west after sunset. At this elongation, the distance of Venus from the sun on the sky’s dome will be 46 degrees. Then, after greatest elongation, Venus will sink toward the sunset as it races toward its sweep between the Earth and sun around October 24, 2026. Magnitude at greatest elongation: Venus will be shining at magnitude -4.4. Through a telescope: Venus will appear 49% illuminated, near a first quarter phase, 24.48 arcseconds across.
2026 Venus finder charts
Bright Venus will rise slightly higher shortly after sunset each evening all month. It will pass the star Regulus on July 9, then they’ll drift apart. Venus will ascend higher each night as it races toward its greatest distance from the sun on August 14-15. Chart via EarthSky.On the evening of July 15, the waxing crescent moon will be approaching brilliant Venus and Regulus, the brightest star in Leo the Lion. Chart via EarthSky.On the evenings of July 16 and 17, the waxing crescent moon will lie near brilliant Venus and Regulus, the brightest star in Leo the Lion. Regulus is the bright dot at the bottom of a backward question-mark pattern of stars known as the Sickle. Also look for the delicate glow of earthshine on the unlit portion of the moon. They’ll set late evening. Chart via EarthSky.
A comparison of elongations
Not all of Venus’ greatest elongations are created equal. That’s because the farthest from the sun that Venus can ever appear on the sky’s dome is about 47.3 degrees. On the other hand, the least distance is around 45.4 degrees.
Elongations are also higher or lower depending on the time of year they occur and your location on Earth.
A comparison chart of Venus elongations in 2026 and 2027. Gray areas represent evening apparitions (eastward elongation). The blue area represents morning apparitions (westward elongation). The top figures are the maximum elongations, reached at the top dates shown beneath. Curves show the altitude of the planet above the horizon at sunrise or sunset, for latitude 40 degrees north (thick line) and 35 degrees south (thin). Maxima are reached at the parenthesized dates below (40 degrees north bold). Chart via Guy Ottewell’s 2026 Astronomical Calendar. Used with permission.
More Venus evening elongation comparisons for 2026
Venus’ greatest evening elongation in 2026 from the Northern Hemisphere as viewed through a powerful telescope. The planet images are at the 1st, 11th, and 21st of each month. Dots show the actual positions of Venus every day. Chart via Guy Ottewell’s 2026 Astronomical Calendar. Used with permission.Venus’ greatest evening elongation in 2026 from the Southern Hemisphere as viewed through a powerful telescope. The planet images are at the 1st, 11th, and 21st of each month. Dots show the actual positions of Venus every day. Chart via Guy Ottewell’s 2026 Astronomical Calendar. Used with permission.
Venus events in 2026
January 6, 2026: Superior conjunction (passed behind sun from Earth) August 15, 2026: Greatest elongation (evening) October 24, 2026: Inferior conjunction (races between Earth and sun) January 3, 2027: Greatest elongation (morning)
Bottom line: Look for Venus after sunset! It’s high in the August evening sky for all to see. Look west for a dazzling point of light.
View at EarthSky Community Photos. | P Govardhana Siddartha of India submitted this composite of Venus taken over 4 months. Venus was recorded from December 2024 to March 2025. Venus was at its greatest distance from the sun in January 2025. You can see how the size of Venus increases and the phase decreases on its way to inferior conjunction. That’s when it passes between Earth and the sun which last occurred in March 2025 and will occur next on October 24, 2026. Thank you, P Govardhana!
Venus after sunset in August 2026
In August 2026, Venus – Earth’s brightest neighboring planet – will be shining in the western twilight after sunset. You can’t miss Venus! It’s exceedingly bright and will penetrate the bright twilight. It’ll remain visible in the evening sky through October. Greatest elongation – when Venus will reach its farthest distance from the sunset – is at 6 UTC on August 15, 2026. Venus will reach its greatest brilliancy in the evening sky on September 18, 2026.
As the 2nd planet in orbit (going outward from the sun), Venus is bound by an invisible tether to the sun in our sky. It’s always east before sunrise, or west after sunset (never overhead at midnight). Venus is the brightest planet visible from Earth and shines brilliantly throughout every morning or evening apparition. Greatest elongation happens when Venus is farthest from the sun on the sky’s dome.
For precise sun and Venus rising times at your location:
Greatest elongation will occur at 6 UTC on August 15, 2026 (1 a.m. CDT). Venus will be in our evening sky, in the west after sunset. At this elongation, the distance of Venus from the sun on the sky’s dome will be 46 degrees. Then, after greatest elongation, Venus will sink toward the sunset as it races toward its sweep between the Earth and sun around October 24, 2026. Magnitude at greatest elongation: Venus will be shining at magnitude -4.4. Through a telescope: Venus will appear 49% illuminated, near a first quarter phase, 24.48 arcseconds across.
2026 Venus finder charts
Bright Venus will rise slightly higher shortly after sunset each evening all month. It will pass the star Regulus on July 9, then they’ll drift apart. Venus will ascend higher each night as it races toward its greatest distance from the sun on August 14-15. Chart via EarthSky.On the evening of July 15, the waxing crescent moon will be approaching brilliant Venus and Regulus, the brightest star in Leo the Lion. Chart via EarthSky.On the evenings of July 16 and 17, the waxing crescent moon will lie near brilliant Venus and Regulus, the brightest star in Leo the Lion. Regulus is the bright dot at the bottom of a backward question-mark pattern of stars known as the Sickle. Also look for the delicate glow of earthshine on the unlit portion of the moon. They’ll set late evening. Chart via EarthSky.
A comparison of elongations
Not all of Venus’ greatest elongations are created equal. That’s because the farthest from the sun that Venus can ever appear on the sky’s dome is about 47.3 degrees. On the other hand, the least distance is around 45.4 degrees.
Elongations are also higher or lower depending on the time of year they occur and your location on Earth.
A comparison chart of Venus elongations in 2026 and 2027. Gray areas represent evening apparitions (eastward elongation). The blue area represents morning apparitions (westward elongation). The top figures are the maximum elongations, reached at the top dates shown beneath. Curves show the altitude of the planet above the horizon at sunrise or sunset, for latitude 40 degrees north (thick line) and 35 degrees south (thin). Maxima are reached at the parenthesized dates below (40 degrees north bold). Chart via Guy Ottewell’s 2026 Astronomical Calendar. Used with permission.
More Venus evening elongation comparisons for 2026
Venus’ greatest evening elongation in 2026 from the Northern Hemisphere as viewed through a powerful telescope. The planet images are at the 1st, 11th, and 21st of each month. Dots show the actual positions of Venus every day. Chart via Guy Ottewell’s 2026 Astronomical Calendar. Used with permission.Venus’ greatest evening elongation in 2026 from the Southern Hemisphere as viewed through a powerful telescope. The planet images are at the 1st, 11th, and 21st of each month. Dots show the actual positions of Venus every day. Chart via Guy Ottewell’s 2026 Astronomical Calendar. Used with permission.
Venus events in 2026
January 6, 2026: Superior conjunction (passed behind sun from Earth) August 15, 2026: Greatest elongation (evening) October 24, 2026: Inferior conjunction (races between Earth and sun) January 3, 2027: Greatest elongation (morning)
Bottom line: Look for Venus after sunset! It’s high in the August evening sky for all to see. Look west for a dazzling point of light.
The light we can see with our eyes is part of a range of radiation known as the electromagnetic spectrum. Shorter wavelengths of light are higher energy, and longer wavelengths of light are lower energy. The Hubble Space Telescope sees primarily visible light (indicated here by the rainbow), as well as some infrared and ultraviolet radiation. Image via NASA/ JHUAPL/ SwRI.
The electromagnetic spectrum includes a range of all types of light, not just what we can see. This range – going from radio waves to gamma rays – is mostly invisible to our eyes.
Our eyes see just visible light, which includes colors from red to violet. Different colors represent different wavelengths!
Astronomers use the entire spectrum of radiation from stars and other objects to study outer space. For example, radio waves help map galaxies, while infrared can see through dust clouds and identify cool stars.
The electromagnetic spectrum
When you think of light, you probably think of what your eyes can see. However, the light our human eyes can detect is only a sliver of the total amount of light that’s out there. So, the electromagnetic spectrum is the term scientists use to describe the entire range of light that exists. From radio waves to gamma rays, most of the light in the universe is, in fact, invisible to us.
Light is a wave of alternating electric and magnetic fields. The propagation of light isn’t much different than waves crossing an ocean. Like any other wave, light has a few fundamental properties that describe it. For example, one is its frequency, measured in hertz (Hz), which counts the number of waves that pass by a point in one second. Another closely related property is its wavelength: the distance from the peak of one wave to the peak of the next. In fact, these two attributes are inversely related. The larger the frequency, the smaller the wavelength, and vice versa.
Our eyes see visible light
The electromagnetic waves your eyes detect – visible light – oscillate between 400 and 790 terahertz (THz). To put it another way, that’s several hundred trillion times a second. As an illustration, the wavelengths are roughly the size of a large virus: 390 – 750 nanometers (1 nanometer = 1 billionth of a meter; a meter is about 39 inches long). Our brain interprets the various wavelengths of light as different colors. For example, red has the longest wavelength, and violet the shortest. When we pass sunlight through a prism, we see that it’s actually composed of many wavelengths of light. So the prism creates a rainbow by redirecting each wavelength out at a slightly different angle.
The entire electromagnetic spectrum is much more than just visible light. It encompasses a range of wavelengths of energy that our human eyes can’t see. Image via Wikimedia Commons.
But light doesn’t stop at red or violet. Indeed, just like there are sounds we can’t hear, there is an enormous range of light that our eyes can’t detect. In general, the longer wavelengths come from the coolest and darkest regions of space. Meanwhile, the shorter wavelengths measure extremely energetic phenomena.
The coolest part of the electromagnetic spectrum
Astronomers use the entire electromagnetic spectrum to observe a variety of things. Radio waves and microwaves are the longest wavelengths and lowest energies of light. With this in mind, they are used to peer inside dense interstellar clouds and track the motion of cold, dark gas. Radio telescopes have been used to map the structure of our galaxy. Additionally, microwave telescopes are sensitive to the remnant glow of the Big Bang.
This image from the Very Large Baseline Array (VLBA) shows what the galaxy M33 would look like if you could see it in radio waves. This image maps atomic hydrogen gas in the galaxy. The different colors map velocities in the gas: red shows gas moving away from us, blue is moving towards us. Image via NRAO/ AUI.
Infrared telescopes excel at finding cool, dim stars, slicing through interstellar dust bands. Plus, they even measure the temperatures of planets in other solar systems. The wavelengths of infrared light are long enough to navigate through clouds that would otherwise block our view. By using large infrared telescopes, astronomers peer through the dust lanes of our galaxy into the Milky Way’s core.
This image from the Hubble and Spitzer space telescopes shows the central 300 light-years of our Milky Way galaxy, as we would see it if our eyes could see infrared energy. The image reveals massive star clusters and swirling gas clouds. Image via NASA/ ESA/ JPL/ Q.D. Wang/ S. Stolovy.
Most stars emit visible light
The majority of stars emit most of their electromagnetic energy as visible light, the tiny portion of the spectrum to which our eyes are sensitive. And, because wavelength correlates with energy, the color of a star tells us how hot it is: red stars are coolest, blue are hottest. On the other hand, the coldest of stars emit hardly any visible light at all; they can only be seen with infrared telescopes.
The more energetic ultraviolet light
Then at wavelengths shorter than violet, we find the ultraviolet, or UV, light. You may be familiar with UV from its ability to give you a sunburn. Astronomers use it to hunt out the most energetic of stars and identify regions of star birth. When viewing distant galaxies with UV telescopes, most of the stars and gas disappear, and all the stellar nurseries pop into view.
A view of the spiral galaxy M81 in the ultraviolet, made possible by the GALEX space observatory. The bright regions show stellar nurseries in the spiral arms. Image via NASA.
Highest energy light: X-ray and Gamma Ray
Then, beyond UV come the highest energies in the electromagnetic spectrum: X-rays and gamma rays. Our atmosphere blocks this light, so astronomers must rely on telescopes in space to see the X-ray and gamma ray universe. X-rays come from exotic neutron stars, or from the vortex of superheated material spiraling around a black hole. As well as, from diffuse clouds of gas in galactic clusters that are heated to many millions of degrees.
Meanwhile, gamma rays – the shortest wavelength of light and deadly to humans – unveil violent events. And these include supernova explosions, cosmic radioactive decay and even the destruction of antimatter. Gamma ray bursts are among the most energetic singular events in the universe. Or they are a brief flickering of gamma ray light from distant galaxies when a star explodes and creates a black hole.
If you could see in X-rays, over long distances, you’d see this view of the nebula surrounding pulsar PSR B1509-58. This image is from the Chandra X-ray Observatory. Located 17,000 light-years away, the pulsar is the rapidly spinning remnant of a stellar core left behind after a supernova. Image via NASA.
See the difference for yourself
As visible light fades to near-infrared, more stars are revealed, plus twin jets blasting out from a young star at the top of this dusty pillar. Different wavelengths of light show more of what is happening in space. Credit: NASA, ESA, STScI. pic.twitter.com/ROKk7hooOI
Hubble and #NASAWebb work together to give complementary views of the star-forming region NGC 346. Fading from visible light to near-infrared and mid-infrared, each image highlights different features: https://t.co/z1TIxa3Haopic.twitter.com/oZIdafgbBX
— Space Telescope Science Institute (@SpaceTelescope) October 10, 2023
Which came first for this Penguin and its Egg? @NASAHubble took the visible-light view on the left in 2013.
On the right side is Webb's near-infrared image. With its sensitive vision, Webb peers through dust, intensifies bright objects, and highlights unseen stars and galaxies. pic.twitter.com/IYyBoTWm8V
The light we can see with our eyes is part of a range of radiation known as the electromagnetic spectrum. Shorter wavelengths of light are higher energy, and longer wavelengths of light are lower energy. The Hubble Space Telescope sees primarily visible light (indicated here by the rainbow), as well as some infrared and ultraviolet radiation. Image via NASA/ JHUAPL/ SwRI.
The electromagnetic spectrum includes a range of all types of light, not just what we can see. This range – going from radio waves to gamma rays – is mostly invisible to our eyes.
Our eyes see just visible light, which includes colors from red to violet. Different colors represent different wavelengths!
Astronomers use the entire spectrum of radiation from stars and other objects to study outer space. For example, radio waves help map galaxies, while infrared can see through dust clouds and identify cool stars.
The electromagnetic spectrum
When you think of light, you probably think of what your eyes can see. However, the light our human eyes can detect is only a sliver of the total amount of light that’s out there. So, the electromagnetic spectrum is the term scientists use to describe the entire range of light that exists. From radio waves to gamma rays, most of the light in the universe is, in fact, invisible to us.
Light is a wave of alternating electric and magnetic fields. The propagation of light isn’t much different than waves crossing an ocean. Like any other wave, light has a few fundamental properties that describe it. For example, one is its frequency, measured in hertz (Hz), which counts the number of waves that pass by a point in one second. Another closely related property is its wavelength: the distance from the peak of one wave to the peak of the next. In fact, these two attributes are inversely related. The larger the frequency, the smaller the wavelength, and vice versa.
Our eyes see visible light
The electromagnetic waves your eyes detect – visible light – oscillate between 400 and 790 terahertz (THz). To put it another way, that’s several hundred trillion times a second. As an illustration, the wavelengths are roughly the size of a large virus: 390 – 750 nanometers (1 nanometer = 1 billionth of a meter; a meter is about 39 inches long). Our brain interprets the various wavelengths of light as different colors. For example, red has the longest wavelength, and violet the shortest. When we pass sunlight through a prism, we see that it’s actually composed of many wavelengths of light. So the prism creates a rainbow by redirecting each wavelength out at a slightly different angle.
The entire electromagnetic spectrum is much more than just visible light. It encompasses a range of wavelengths of energy that our human eyes can’t see. Image via Wikimedia Commons.
But light doesn’t stop at red or violet. Indeed, just like there are sounds we can’t hear, there is an enormous range of light that our eyes can’t detect. In general, the longer wavelengths come from the coolest and darkest regions of space. Meanwhile, the shorter wavelengths measure extremely energetic phenomena.
The coolest part of the electromagnetic spectrum
Astronomers use the entire electromagnetic spectrum to observe a variety of things. Radio waves and microwaves are the longest wavelengths and lowest energies of light. With this in mind, they are used to peer inside dense interstellar clouds and track the motion of cold, dark gas. Radio telescopes have been used to map the structure of our galaxy. Additionally, microwave telescopes are sensitive to the remnant glow of the Big Bang.
This image from the Very Large Baseline Array (VLBA) shows what the galaxy M33 would look like if you could see it in radio waves. This image maps atomic hydrogen gas in the galaxy. The different colors map velocities in the gas: red shows gas moving away from us, blue is moving towards us. Image via NRAO/ AUI.
Infrared telescopes excel at finding cool, dim stars, slicing through interstellar dust bands. Plus, they even measure the temperatures of planets in other solar systems. The wavelengths of infrared light are long enough to navigate through clouds that would otherwise block our view. By using large infrared telescopes, astronomers peer through the dust lanes of our galaxy into the Milky Way’s core.
This image from the Hubble and Spitzer space telescopes shows the central 300 light-years of our Milky Way galaxy, as we would see it if our eyes could see infrared energy. The image reveals massive star clusters and swirling gas clouds. Image via NASA/ ESA/ JPL/ Q.D. Wang/ S. Stolovy.
Most stars emit visible light
The majority of stars emit most of their electromagnetic energy as visible light, the tiny portion of the spectrum to which our eyes are sensitive. And, because wavelength correlates with energy, the color of a star tells us how hot it is: red stars are coolest, blue are hottest. On the other hand, the coldest of stars emit hardly any visible light at all; they can only be seen with infrared telescopes.
The more energetic ultraviolet light
Then at wavelengths shorter than violet, we find the ultraviolet, or UV, light. You may be familiar with UV from its ability to give you a sunburn. Astronomers use it to hunt out the most energetic of stars and identify regions of star birth. When viewing distant galaxies with UV telescopes, most of the stars and gas disappear, and all the stellar nurseries pop into view.
A view of the spiral galaxy M81 in the ultraviolet, made possible by the GALEX space observatory. The bright regions show stellar nurseries in the spiral arms. Image via NASA.
Highest energy light: X-ray and Gamma Ray
Then, beyond UV come the highest energies in the electromagnetic spectrum: X-rays and gamma rays. Our atmosphere blocks this light, so astronomers must rely on telescopes in space to see the X-ray and gamma ray universe. X-rays come from exotic neutron stars, or from the vortex of superheated material spiraling around a black hole. As well as, from diffuse clouds of gas in galactic clusters that are heated to many millions of degrees.
Meanwhile, gamma rays – the shortest wavelength of light and deadly to humans – unveil violent events. And these include supernova explosions, cosmic radioactive decay and even the destruction of antimatter. Gamma ray bursts are among the most energetic singular events in the universe. Or they are a brief flickering of gamma ray light from distant galaxies when a star explodes and creates a black hole.
If you could see in X-rays, over long distances, you’d see this view of the nebula surrounding pulsar PSR B1509-58. This image is from the Chandra X-ray Observatory. Located 17,000 light-years away, the pulsar is the rapidly spinning remnant of a stellar core left behind after a supernova. Image via NASA.
See the difference for yourself
As visible light fades to near-infrared, more stars are revealed, plus twin jets blasting out from a young star at the top of this dusty pillar. Different wavelengths of light show more of what is happening in space. Credit: NASA, ESA, STScI. pic.twitter.com/ROKk7hooOI
Hubble and #NASAWebb work together to give complementary views of the star-forming region NGC 346. Fading from visible light to near-infrared and mid-infrared, each image highlights different features: https://t.co/z1TIxa3Haopic.twitter.com/oZIdafgbBX
— Space Telescope Science Institute (@SpaceTelescope) October 10, 2023
Which came first for this Penguin and its Egg? @NASAHubble took the visible-light view on the left in 2013.
On the right side is Webb's near-infrared image. With its sensitive vision, Webb peers through dust, intensifies bright objects, and highlights unseen stars and galaxies. pic.twitter.com/IYyBoTWm8V
Here are the eclipse seasons of 2026, shown in bold. The sun is at the center of this diagram. The Earth is shown as a white dot in the center of each blue disk. And the moon’s orbit defines the blue disks surrounding each white dot. The moon is either sunward from Earth (new moon) or outward from it (full moon). Small arrows at the edge of the blue disks show the moon’s course over 7 days. Image via Guy Ottewell’s Astronomical Calendar 2026. Used with permission.
2nd eclipse season of 2026
The 2nd eclipse season of 2026 is underway. An eclipse season is an approximately 35-day period during which it’s inevitable that at least two (and possibly three) eclipses will occur. There will be a total solar eclipse on August 12, 2026, followed two weeks later by a partial lunar eclipse on August 28, 2026.
The first eclipse season of 2026 featured two eclipses, an annular or “ring of fire” solar eclipse on February 17 and a total lunar eclipse on March 2-3.
During an eclipse season, the Earth, moon and sun line up in space. Eclipse seasons recur about every 173 days (somewhat shy of every six calendar months), when the sun aligns with one of the moon’s orbital nodes — the two points where the plane of the moon’s orbit crosses the plane of Earth’s orbit around the sun. The moon has to be at a node at either full or new moon, in order for an eclipse to occur.
A full moon at a lunar node means a lunar eclipse. A new moon at a node means a solar eclipse.
Why don’t we see every eclipse?
So we have two eclipse seasons per year (usually), giving us have at least four eclipses per year and sometimes more. But – unless we become eclipse chasers – most of us don’t see that many eclipses. To see a lunar eclipse, the full moon has to be above your horizon. And that can only happen at night, or close to night, because a full moon is opposite the sun. Night falls for half of Earth at once. So, generally speaking, half of Earth can see a lunar eclipse at once.
Solar eclipses are harder to catch. A total solar eclipse can be seen only from a narrow track along Earth’s surface. The accompanying partial solar eclipse can be seen only in areas adjacent to that track.
So you have to be in the right location on Earth’s surface to see a lunar or solar eclipse. But lunar eclipses are easier to catch than solar eclipses.
View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Catherine Hyde in Cambria, California, captured this stunning telescope image of the total lunar eclipse on March 3, 2026. Thank you, Catherine! See more incredible lunar eclipse images below.
View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Iaroslav Kourzenkov in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, captured a partial solar eclipse on March 29, 2025. Iaroslav wrote: “Witnessed a rare beauty this morning! Caught the stunning partial solar eclipse at sunrise and managed to snap a few photos.” Thank you, Iaroslav!
What causes an eclipse season?
Astronomy is all about cycles. When you learn to watch the night sky, you’ll begin to notice the many cycles of the sky.
And, of course, eclipses come in cycles, too. Consider a scenario where the moon orbited Earth on the same plane as the Earth orbits the sun. Then we’d have a solar eclipse at every new moon, and a lunar eclipse at every full moon.
But, in reality, the plane of the moon’s orbit is inclined by 5 degrees to the ecliptic (Earth’s orbital plane). Most of the time, the new moon or full moon swings too far north, or south, of the ecliptic for an eclipse to take place.
For instance, in the year 2026, we will have 12 new moons and 13 full moons, but only two solar eclipses and two lunar eclipses.
Eclipses are all about alignments. In a solar eclipse, the sun, moon and Earth line up, with the moon in the middle. Image via NASA.In a lunar eclipse, the sun, Earth and moon line up, with the Earth in the middle. Image via NASA.
When lunar nodes point at the sun
So, as the moon orbits Earth, the moon crosses the ecliptic (Earth’s orbital plane) twice each month. Those crossing points are the nodes. If the moon is going from south to north, it’s called the moon’s ascending node. If the moon is moving from north to south, it’s called the moon’s descending node.
But, for an eclipse to take place, that crossing point – or lunar node – must be pointed at the sun. And that momentous crossing marks the middle of the eclipse season. Maybe you can see that the alignment of the moon, sun and Earth is most exact when an eclipse happens at the middle of an eclipse season, in other words, when there’s a new or full moon precisely at a node crossing. On the other hand, the alignment of the moon, sun and Earth is least exact when a new or full moon happens at the start or the end of an eclipse season. A lunar eclipse happening early or late in the eclipse season gives us a penumbral lunar eclipse, where the outer, lighter shadow of the Earth brushes the moon’s face. And any solar eclipse happening early or late in the eclipse season is a skimpy partial eclipse.
View larger. | Nodal precession of the lunar nodes as the Earth revolves around the sun causes an eclipse season approximately every 6 months. Image via Nela/ Wikimedia Commons.
2 or 3 eclipses in one eclipse season?
An eclipse season most often presents only two eclipses. However, if the first eclipse falls early in the eclipse season, then it’s possible for a third eclipse to occur before the eclipse season ends.
For example, the last time three eclipses happened in one eclipse season was June-July 2020:
With this in mind, here are some words you need to know to understand eclipse seasons: lunar nodes and ecliptic. The ecliptic is the plane of the Earth’s orbit around the sun. A lunar node is the point where, in its monthly orbit of Earth, the moon’s orbit intersects that plane. An eclipse season is when – from Earth’s perspective – the sun is close enough to a lunar node to allow an eclipse to take place. If the sun is close to a lunar node at full moon, we see a lunar eclipse. If the sun is close to a lunar node at new moon, we see a solar eclipse.
To put it another way, if the moon turns new or full in close concert with the moon’s crossing of one of its nodes, then an eclipse is not only possible, but inevitable.
The moon’s orbit around Earth is inclined 5 degrees to Earth’s orbit around the sun, so the moon crosses the Earth’s orbital plane twice a month at points called nodes. Every 173.3 days, the line of nodes points at the sun, which is the middle of the approximate 5-week eclipse season (highlighted in gray). During any eclipse season, there is always at least 1 solar eclipse and 1 lunar eclipse, occurring within one fortnight of the other. If the 1st eclipse arrives early enough in the eclipse season, 3 eclipses can fit within a lunar month, and up to 7 eclipses occur in one year’s time. Image via SuperManu/ Wikimedia Commons.
Minimum of 4 eclipses in one year
A lunar month (period of time between successive new moons or successive full moons) is about 29.5 days long. So a minimum of two eclipses (one solar and one lunar, in either order) happens in one eclipse season. A maximum of three eclipses is possible (either lunar/solar/lunar or solar/lunar/solar), though the first eclipse of the eclipse season has to come quite early to allow for a third eclipse near the end.
So a minimum of two lunar eclipses and two solar eclipses occurs in one calendar year. Yet, depending on how the eclipse seasons and lunar phases align, it’s possible to also have five, six or seven eclipses in one year.
For the maximum of seven eclipses to occur in one calendar year, the first eclipse must come in early January. That leaves enough room for the seventh eclipse in late December. In one scenario, an eclipse season sporting two eclipses comes early in the year and late in the year. The middle eclipse season stages three eclipses.
It’s quite rare for seven eclipses to occur in one calendar year, however. Seven eclipses last happened in the year 1982, and will next occur in the year 2038.
Maximum of 7 eclipses in one year
Also, it’s remotely possible for a calendar year to sport two eclipse seasons with three eclipses each, and one eclipse from an eclipse season that straddles into the previous or following year. Click in to see two examples, the years 1935 and 1879-80.
View at EarthSky Community Photos. | David Chapman in Seaforth, Nova Scotia, Canada, captured a partial solar eclipse on March 29, 2025. David wrote: “I drove to a coastal location northeast of Halifax to avoid the encroaching cloud bank. I observed a point-like green flash as the upper cusp of the crescent appeared at 7:00 ADT. Photo is at peak eclipse and is a bit overexposed.” Thank you, David!View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Kathy Hunter caught these views of the lunar eclipse on March 14, 2025, from West Virginia. Kathy wrote: “My first composite!” Thank you, Kathy.
Bottom line: Eclipse seasons are periods during which eclipses not only can take place, but must take place. There’s a minimum of two eclipses in one eclipse season and a maximum of seven eclipses possible in a calendar year. In 2026, the 2nd eclipse season is in August with a total solar eclipse and a partial lunar eclipse.
Here are the eclipse seasons of 2026, shown in bold. The sun is at the center of this diagram. The Earth is shown as a white dot in the center of each blue disk. And the moon’s orbit defines the blue disks surrounding each white dot. The moon is either sunward from Earth (new moon) or outward from it (full moon). Small arrows at the edge of the blue disks show the moon’s course over 7 days. Image via Guy Ottewell’s Astronomical Calendar 2026. Used with permission.
2nd eclipse season of 2026
The 2nd eclipse season of 2026 is underway. An eclipse season is an approximately 35-day period during which it’s inevitable that at least two (and possibly three) eclipses will occur. There will be a total solar eclipse on August 12, 2026, followed two weeks later by a partial lunar eclipse on August 28, 2026.
The first eclipse season of 2026 featured two eclipses, an annular or “ring of fire” solar eclipse on February 17 and a total lunar eclipse on March 2-3.
During an eclipse season, the Earth, moon and sun line up in space. Eclipse seasons recur about every 173 days (somewhat shy of every six calendar months), when the sun aligns with one of the moon’s orbital nodes — the two points where the plane of the moon’s orbit crosses the plane of Earth’s orbit around the sun. The moon has to be at a node at either full or new moon, in order for an eclipse to occur.
A full moon at a lunar node means a lunar eclipse. A new moon at a node means a solar eclipse.
Why don’t we see every eclipse?
So we have two eclipse seasons per year (usually), giving us have at least four eclipses per year and sometimes more. But – unless we become eclipse chasers – most of us don’t see that many eclipses. To see a lunar eclipse, the full moon has to be above your horizon. And that can only happen at night, or close to night, because a full moon is opposite the sun. Night falls for half of Earth at once. So, generally speaking, half of Earth can see a lunar eclipse at once.
Solar eclipses are harder to catch. A total solar eclipse can be seen only from a narrow track along Earth’s surface. The accompanying partial solar eclipse can be seen only in areas adjacent to that track.
So you have to be in the right location on Earth’s surface to see a lunar or solar eclipse. But lunar eclipses are easier to catch than solar eclipses.
View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Catherine Hyde in Cambria, California, captured this stunning telescope image of the total lunar eclipse on March 3, 2026. Thank you, Catherine! See more incredible lunar eclipse images below.
View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Iaroslav Kourzenkov in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, captured a partial solar eclipse on March 29, 2025. Iaroslav wrote: “Witnessed a rare beauty this morning! Caught the stunning partial solar eclipse at sunrise and managed to snap a few photos.” Thank you, Iaroslav!
What causes an eclipse season?
Astronomy is all about cycles. When you learn to watch the night sky, you’ll begin to notice the many cycles of the sky.
And, of course, eclipses come in cycles, too. Consider a scenario where the moon orbited Earth on the same plane as the Earth orbits the sun. Then we’d have a solar eclipse at every new moon, and a lunar eclipse at every full moon.
But, in reality, the plane of the moon’s orbit is inclined by 5 degrees to the ecliptic (Earth’s orbital plane). Most of the time, the new moon or full moon swings too far north, or south, of the ecliptic for an eclipse to take place.
For instance, in the year 2026, we will have 12 new moons and 13 full moons, but only two solar eclipses and two lunar eclipses.
Eclipses are all about alignments. In a solar eclipse, the sun, moon and Earth line up, with the moon in the middle. Image via NASA.In a lunar eclipse, the sun, Earth and moon line up, with the Earth in the middle. Image via NASA.
When lunar nodes point at the sun
So, as the moon orbits Earth, the moon crosses the ecliptic (Earth’s orbital plane) twice each month. Those crossing points are the nodes. If the moon is going from south to north, it’s called the moon’s ascending node. If the moon is moving from north to south, it’s called the moon’s descending node.
But, for an eclipse to take place, that crossing point – or lunar node – must be pointed at the sun. And that momentous crossing marks the middle of the eclipse season. Maybe you can see that the alignment of the moon, sun and Earth is most exact when an eclipse happens at the middle of an eclipse season, in other words, when there’s a new or full moon precisely at a node crossing. On the other hand, the alignment of the moon, sun and Earth is least exact when a new or full moon happens at the start or the end of an eclipse season. A lunar eclipse happening early or late in the eclipse season gives us a penumbral lunar eclipse, where the outer, lighter shadow of the Earth brushes the moon’s face. And any solar eclipse happening early or late in the eclipse season is a skimpy partial eclipse.
View larger. | Nodal precession of the lunar nodes as the Earth revolves around the sun causes an eclipse season approximately every 6 months. Image via Nela/ Wikimedia Commons.
2 or 3 eclipses in one eclipse season?
An eclipse season most often presents only two eclipses. However, if the first eclipse falls early in the eclipse season, then it’s possible for a third eclipse to occur before the eclipse season ends.
For example, the last time three eclipses happened in one eclipse season was June-July 2020:
With this in mind, here are some words you need to know to understand eclipse seasons: lunar nodes and ecliptic. The ecliptic is the plane of the Earth’s orbit around the sun. A lunar node is the point where, in its monthly orbit of Earth, the moon’s orbit intersects that plane. An eclipse season is when – from Earth’s perspective – the sun is close enough to a lunar node to allow an eclipse to take place. If the sun is close to a lunar node at full moon, we see a lunar eclipse. If the sun is close to a lunar node at new moon, we see a solar eclipse.
To put it another way, if the moon turns new or full in close concert with the moon’s crossing of one of its nodes, then an eclipse is not only possible, but inevitable.
The moon’s orbit around Earth is inclined 5 degrees to Earth’s orbit around the sun, so the moon crosses the Earth’s orbital plane twice a month at points called nodes. Every 173.3 days, the line of nodes points at the sun, which is the middle of the approximate 5-week eclipse season (highlighted in gray). During any eclipse season, there is always at least 1 solar eclipse and 1 lunar eclipse, occurring within one fortnight of the other. If the 1st eclipse arrives early enough in the eclipse season, 3 eclipses can fit within a lunar month, and up to 7 eclipses occur in one year’s time. Image via SuperManu/ Wikimedia Commons.
Minimum of 4 eclipses in one year
A lunar month (period of time between successive new moons or successive full moons) is about 29.5 days long. So a minimum of two eclipses (one solar and one lunar, in either order) happens in one eclipse season. A maximum of three eclipses is possible (either lunar/solar/lunar or solar/lunar/solar), though the first eclipse of the eclipse season has to come quite early to allow for a third eclipse near the end.
So a minimum of two lunar eclipses and two solar eclipses occurs in one calendar year. Yet, depending on how the eclipse seasons and lunar phases align, it’s possible to also have five, six or seven eclipses in one year.
For the maximum of seven eclipses to occur in one calendar year, the first eclipse must come in early January. That leaves enough room for the seventh eclipse in late December. In one scenario, an eclipse season sporting two eclipses comes early in the year and late in the year. The middle eclipse season stages three eclipses.
It’s quite rare for seven eclipses to occur in one calendar year, however. Seven eclipses last happened in the year 1982, and will next occur in the year 2038.
Maximum of 7 eclipses in one year
Also, it’s remotely possible for a calendar year to sport two eclipse seasons with three eclipses each, and one eclipse from an eclipse season that straddles into the previous or following year. Click in to see two examples, the years 1935 and 1879-80.
View at EarthSky Community Photos. | David Chapman in Seaforth, Nova Scotia, Canada, captured a partial solar eclipse on March 29, 2025. David wrote: “I drove to a coastal location northeast of Halifax to avoid the encroaching cloud bank. I observed a point-like green flash as the upper cusp of the crescent appeared at 7:00 ADT. Photo is at peak eclipse and is a bit overexposed.” Thank you, David!View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Kathy Hunter caught these views of the lunar eclipse on March 14, 2025, from West Virginia. Kathy wrote: “My first composite!” Thank you, Kathy.
Bottom line: Eclipse seasons are periods during which eclipses not only can take place, but must take place. There’s a minimum of two eclipses in one eclipse season and a maximum of seven eclipses possible in a calendar year. In 2026, the 2nd eclipse season is in August with a total solar eclipse and a partial lunar eclipse.
