Be sure to join author Eric Berger and EarthSky’s Dave Adalian LIVE MONDAY beginning at 12:15 p.m. CDT (17:15 UTC). Watch in the player above or watch it on YouTube. You can also click in for a “notify me” button so you don’t miss any of our livestreams, scheduled this week for Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Fridays. All at 12:15 p.m. central!
Pulitzer Prize-nominated author and journalist Eric Berger’s newest book – Reentry: SpaceX, Elon Musk and the Reusable Rockets that Launched a Space Age – is one wild ride. Berger takes his readers through the frantic decade-and-a-half that turned a laughingstock startup into the world’s leading launch provider.
A masterful narration lays out the sometimes glorious, sometimes gory details of the nonstop action. All the near tragedies and eventual triumphs – as seen through the eyes of key company insiders – come to life in Berger’s evenhanded expose. And he pulls no punches when it comes to Musk, the man who drives all that chaos and the accomplishments.
Bottom line: Join EarthSky’s Dave Adalian in a livestream tomorrow at 12:15 pm (17:15 UTC). He will chat with Eric Berger, who is the senior space editor at Ars Technica, about SpaceX and space race.
Be sure to join author Eric Berger and EarthSky’s Dave Adalian LIVE MONDAY beginning at 12:15 p.m. CDT (17:15 UTC). Watch in the player above or watch it on YouTube. You can also click in for a “notify me” button so you don’t miss any of our livestreams, scheduled this week for Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Fridays. All at 12:15 p.m. central!
Pulitzer Prize-nominated author and journalist Eric Berger’s newest book – Reentry: SpaceX, Elon Musk and the Reusable Rockets that Launched a Space Age – is one wild ride. Berger takes his readers through the frantic decade-and-a-half that turned a laughingstock startup into the world’s leading launch provider.
A masterful narration lays out the sometimes glorious, sometimes gory details of the nonstop action. All the near tragedies and eventual triumphs – as seen through the eyes of key company insiders – come to life in Berger’s evenhanded expose. And he pulls no punches when it comes to Musk, the man who drives all that chaos and the accomplishments.
Bottom line: Join EarthSky’s Dave Adalian in a livestream tomorrow at 12:15 pm (17:15 UTC). He will chat with Eric Berger, who is the senior space editor at Ars Technica, about SpaceX and space race.
Biobots arise from the cells of dead organisms, scientists have learned, and exist in a strange 3rd state between life and death. It’s possible that, one day, they might be engineered to deliver drugs and clear up arterial plaque. Image via Kriegman et al. 2020/ PNAS/ The Conversation/ CC BY-SA.
There’s a 3rd stage between life and death, scientists say. It happens when new lifeforms arise from the cells of dead organisms.
The scientists call these “lifeforms” biobots and describe them as tiny, living robots in a “3rd state” of being. Scientists can also make different biobots, such as xenobots from frog cells or anthrobots from human cells.
Biobots might someday help the medical world, they say, by delivering medicines more effectively and helping with other treatments.
Life and death are traditionally viewed as opposites. But the emergence of new multicellular lifeforms from the cells of a dead organism introduces a third state that lies beyond the traditional boundaries of life and death. Biobots are tiny, living robots powered by living cells to perform tasks, and they exist in this third state. And scientists can use biobots in medicine and for new treatments.
Usually, scientists consider death to be the irreversible halt of functioning of an organism as a whole. However, practices such as organ donation highlight how organs, tissues and cells can continue to function even after an organism’s demise. This resilience raises the question: What mechanisms allow certain cells to keep working after an organism has died?
We are researchers who investigate what happens within organisms after they die. In our recently published review, we describe how certain cells – when provided with nutrients, oxygen, bioelectricity or biochemical cues – have the capacity to transform into multicellular organisms with new functions after death.
Life, death and the emergence of something new
The third state challenges how scientists typically understand cell behavior. Caterpillars metamorphosing into butterflies or tadpoles evolving into frogs are familiar developmental transformations. But there are few instances where organisms change in ways that are not predetermined. Tumors, organoids and cell lines that can indefinitely divide in a petri dish, like HeLa cells, are not considered part of the third state because they do not develop new functions.
However, researchers found skin cells extracted from deceased frog embryos were able to adapt to the new conditions of a petri dish in a lab. They spontaneously reorganized into multicellular organisms called xenobots (living robots made from frog cells). These organisms exhibited behaviors that extend far beyond their original biological roles. Specifically, these xenobots use their cilia – small, hair-like structures – to navigate and move through their surroundings, whereas in a living frog embryo, cilia are typically used to move mucus.
Xenobots are also able to perform kinematic self-replication. This means they can physically replicate their structure and function without growing. This differs from more common replication processes that involve growth within or on the organism’s body.
Xenobots can move, heal and interact with their environment on their own.
Biobots from humans, or anthrbots
Researchers have also found that solitary human lung cells can self-assemble into miniature multicellular organisms that can move around. These anthrobots (humanoid robots) behave and are structured in new ways. They are not only able to navigate their surroundings but also repair both themselves and injured neuron cells placed nearby.
Taken together, these findings demonstrate the inherent plasticity of cellular systems and challenge the idea that cells and organisms can evolve only in predetermined ways. The third state suggests that organismal death may play a significant role in how life transforms over time.
Diagram A shows an anthrobot building a bridge across a scratched neuron over the course of three days. Diagram B highlights the ‘stitch’ in green at the end of Day 3. Image via Gumuskaya et al. 2023/Advanced Science/ CC BY-SA.
Postmortem conditions
Several factors influence whether certain cells and tissues can survive and function after an organism dies. These include environmental conditions, metabolic activity and preservation techniques.
Different cell types have varying survival times. For example, in humans, white blood cells die between 60 and 86 hours after organismal death. In mice, skeletal muscle cells can be regrown after 14 days postmortem, while fibroblast cells from sheep and goats can be cultured up to a month or so postmortem.
Metabolic activity plays an important role in whether cells can continue to survive and function. Active cells that require a continuous and substantial supply of energy to maintain their function are more difficult to culture than cells with lower energy requirements. Preservation techniques such as cryopreservation can allow tissue samples such as bone marrow to function similarly to that of living donor sources.
Inherent survival mechanisms also play a key role in whether cells and tissues live on. For example, researchers have observed a significant increase in the activity of stress-related genes and immune-related genes after organismal death. This is likely to compensate for the loss of homeostasis. Moreover, factors such as trauma, infection and the time elapsed since death significantly affect tissue and cell viability.
Factors at play
Factors such as age, health, sex and type of species further shape the postmortem landscape. This is seen in the challenge of culturing and transplanting metabolically active islet cells. These cells produce insulin in the pancreas, from donors to recipients. Researchers believe that autoimmune processes, high energy costs and the degradation of protective mechanisms could be the reason behind many islet transplant failures.
How the interplay of these variables allows certain cells to continue functioning after an organism dies remains unclear. One hypothesis is that specialized channels and pumps embedded in the outer membranes of cells serve as intricate electrical circuits. These channels and pumps generate electrical signals that allow cells to communicate with each other and execute specific functions such as growth and movement, shaping the structure of the organism they form.
The extent to which different types of cells can undergo transformation after death is also uncertain. Previous research has found that specific genes involved in stress, immunity and epigenetic regulation are activated after death in mice, zebrafish and people, suggesting widespread potential for transformation among diverse cell types.
Using biobots to aid life
The third state not only offers new insights into the adaptability of cells. It also offers prospects for new treatments.
For example, scientists could source anthrobots from an individual’s living tissue. These anthrobots could deliver drugs without triggering an unwanted immune response. Engineered anthrobots injected into the body could potentially dissolve arterial plaque in atherosclerosis patients and remove excess mucus in cystic fibrosis patients.
Importantly, these multicellular organisms have a finite life span, naturally degrading after four to six weeks. This “kill switch” prevents the growth of potentially invasive cells.
A better understanding of how some cells continue to function and metamorphose into multicellular entities some time after an organism’s demise holds promise for advancing personalized and preventive medicine.
Biobots arise from the cells of dead organisms, scientists have learned, and exist in a strange 3rd state between life and death. It’s possible that, one day, they might be engineered to deliver drugs and clear up arterial plaque. Image via Kriegman et al. 2020/ PNAS/ The Conversation/ CC BY-SA.
There’s a 3rd stage between life and death, scientists say. It happens when new lifeforms arise from the cells of dead organisms.
The scientists call these “lifeforms” biobots and describe them as tiny, living robots in a “3rd state” of being. Scientists can also make different biobots, such as xenobots from frog cells or anthrobots from human cells.
Biobots might someday help the medical world, they say, by delivering medicines more effectively and helping with other treatments.
Life and death are traditionally viewed as opposites. But the emergence of new multicellular lifeforms from the cells of a dead organism introduces a third state that lies beyond the traditional boundaries of life and death. Biobots are tiny, living robots powered by living cells to perform tasks, and they exist in this third state. And scientists can use biobots in medicine and for new treatments.
Usually, scientists consider death to be the irreversible halt of functioning of an organism as a whole. However, practices such as organ donation highlight how organs, tissues and cells can continue to function even after an organism’s demise. This resilience raises the question: What mechanisms allow certain cells to keep working after an organism has died?
We are researchers who investigate what happens within organisms after they die. In our recently published review, we describe how certain cells – when provided with nutrients, oxygen, bioelectricity or biochemical cues – have the capacity to transform into multicellular organisms with new functions after death.
Life, death and the emergence of something new
The third state challenges how scientists typically understand cell behavior. Caterpillars metamorphosing into butterflies or tadpoles evolving into frogs are familiar developmental transformations. But there are few instances where organisms change in ways that are not predetermined. Tumors, organoids and cell lines that can indefinitely divide in a petri dish, like HeLa cells, are not considered part of the third state because they do not develop new functions.
However, researchers found skin cells extracted from deceased frog embryos were able to adapt to the new conditions of a petri dish in a lab. They spontaneously reorganized into multicellular organisms called xenobots (living robots made from frog cells). These organisms exhibited behaviors that extend far beyond their original biological roles. Specifically, these xenobots use their cilia – small, hair-like structures – to navigate and move through their surroundings, whereas in a living frog embryo, cilia are typically used to move mucus.
Xenobots are also able to perform kinematic self-replication. This means they can physically replicate their structure and function without growing. This differs from more common replication processes that involve growth within or on the organism’s body.
Xenobots can move, heal and interact with their environment on their own.
Biobots from humans, or anthrbots
Researchers have also found that solitary human lung cells can self-assemble into miniature multicellular organisms that can move around. These anthrobots (humanoid robots) behave and are structured in new ways. They are not only able to navigate their surroundings but also repair both themselves and injured neuron cells placed nearby.
Taken together, these findings demonstrate the inherent plasticity of cellular systems and challenge the idea that cells and organisms can evolve only in predetermined ways. The third state suggests that organismal death may play a significant role in how life transforms over time.
Diagram A shows an anthrobot building a bridge across a scratched neuron over the course of three days. Diagram B highlights the ‘stitch’ in green at the end of Day 3. Image via Gumuskaya et al. 2023/Advanced Science/ CC BY-SA.
Postmortem conditions
Several factors influence whether certain cells and tissues can survive and function after an organism dies. These include environmental conditions, metabolic activity and preservation techniques.
Different cell types have varying survival times. For example, in humans, white blood cells die between 60 and 86 hours after organismal death. In mice, skeletal muscle cells can be regrown after 14 days postmortem, while fibroblast cells from sheep and goats can be cultured up to a month or so postmortem.
Metabolic activity plays an important role in whether cells can continue to survive and function. Active cells that require a continuous and substantial supply of energy to maintain their function are more difficult to culture than cells with lower energy requirements. Preservation techniques such as cryopreservation can allow tissue samples such as bone marrow to function similarly to that of living donor sources.
Inherent survival mechanisms also play a key role in whether cells and tissues live on. For example, researchers have observed a significant increase in the activity of stress-related genes and immune-related genes after organismal death. This is likely to compensate for the loss of homeostasis. Moreover, factors such as trauma, infection and the time elapsed since death significantly affect tissue and cell viability.
Factors at play
Factors such as age, health, sex and type of species further shape the postmortem landscape. This is seen in the challenge of culturing and transplanting metabolically active islet cells. These cells produce insulin in the pancreas, from donors to recipients. Researchers believe that autoimmune processes, high energy costs and the degradation of protective mechanisms could be the reason behind many islet transplant failures.
How the interplay of these variables allows certain cells to continue functioning after an organism dies remains unclear. One hypothesis is that specialized channels and pumps embedded in the outer membranes of cells serve as intricate electrical circuits. These channels and pumps generate electrical signals that allow cells to communicate with each other and execute specific functions such as growth and movement, shaping the structure of the organism they form.
The extent to which different types of cells can undergo transformation after death is also uncertain. Previous research has found that specific genes involved in stress, immunity and epigenetic regulation are activated after death in mice, zebrafish and people, suggesting widespread potential for transformation among diverse cell types.
Using biobots to aid life
The third state not only offers new insights into the adaptability of cells. It also offers prospects for new treatments.
For example, scientists could source anthrobots from an individual’s living tissue. These anthrobots could deliver drugs without triggering an unwanted immune response. Engineered anthrobots injected into the body could potentially dissolve arterial plaque in atherosclerosis patients and remove excess mucus in cystic fibrosis patients.
Importantly, these multicellular organisms have a finite life span, naturally degrading after four to six weeks. This “kill switch” prevents the growth of potentially invasive cells.
A better understanding of how some cells continue to function and metamorphose into multicellular entities some time after an organism’s demise holds promise for advancing personalized and preventive medicine.
In this artist’s concept, the Hera mission scans the impact crater that DART leaves behind. Image via ESA.
Hera is ready to launch!
The long-awaited Hera mission, which will follow the wildly successful DART mission that struck and moved an asteroid, is scheduled to launch on October 7, 2024. Hera should arrive at Didymos and Dimorphos in about two years to conduct a “crime scene investigation,” as ESA – the mission planner – said. Hera will launch from Kennedy Space Center. The current date and time of launch, according to NASA, is at 14:52 UTC (10:52 a.m. EDT) on October 7, 2024. The launch window is open until October 25.
When DART his Didymos’s little moonlet Dimorphos, it made a big splash, kicking up debris and pushing the asteroid slightly out of its previous orbit. It may even have created a new meteor shower for Earth! Hera is going to learn more about just what happened when DART impacted the little asteroid. ESA said there are three mysteries that Hera will help solve:
2) Hera will map the crater created by DART’s impact down to 10 cm resolution to help scientists better understand how the surface material responded to the collision. It’s possible that there is no crater at all, rather the impact reshaped the entire asteroid! pic.twitter.com/jmp7K4MXjT
Hera's investigation of Dimorphos and Didymos will complete the story that DART began two years ago and turn asteroid deflection into a well understood and repeatable technique for protecting Earth from a potential asteroid impact. Stay tuned for launch next month!… pic.twitter.com/L3Wjg16U7m
The original plan was for DART and Hera to work as a double spacecraft, but over the years of planning, they became separate missions. Ian Carnelli of ESA’s Hera mission said:
The pair are designed to function separately … their overall science return will be boosted greatly by being able to combine their results.
While scientists closely monitored the 2022 DART impact from Earth, the earthly observations didn’t tell scientists many things about Dimorphos that Hera can learn from close range. Hera will inspect the asteroid moonlet to determine its precise mass, what it’s made up of, whether it’s solid or a loose pile of rubble, and what exactly the DART impact crater looks like.
Hera’s contributions
Besides the main spacecraft, Hera will deploy two shoebox-sized satellites. Milani is in charge of spectral surface observations, and Juventas will take the first radar soundings in the heart of an asteroid.
View larger. | DART will make its mark on Dimorphos, and Hera will come along behind it to measure the impact. Image via ESA.
The #HeraMission for asteroid planetary defence will take selfies once in space – here is the approximate field of view of its Spacecraft Monitoring Camera, looking over Hera's instrument-hosting 'Asteroid Deck' https://t.co/VqXqgiRqKVpic.twitter.com/KBJKM6jl3H
This graphic compares the size of the asteroid moonlet Dimorphos to the Colosseum in Rome, Italy. Image via ESA.
Bottom line: The Hera mission is scheduled to launch from Kennedy Space Center on October 7, 2024. Hera will explore the asteroid Dimorphos, which the DART mission hit as a test of planetary defense in 2022.
In this artist’s concept, the Hera mission scans the impact crater that DART leaves behind. Image via ESA.
Hera is ready to launch!
The long-awaited Hera mission, which will follow the wildly successful DART mission that struck and moved an asteroid, is scheduled to launch on October 7, 2024. Hera should arrive at Didymos and Dimorphos in about two years to conduct a “crime scene investigation,” as ESA – the mission planner – said. Hera will launch from Kennedy Space Center. The current date and time of launch, according to NASA, is at 14:52 UTC (10:52 a.m. EDT) on October 7, 2024. The launch window is open until October 25.
When DART his Didymos’s little moonlet Dimorphos, it made a big splash, kicking up debris and pushing the asteroid slightly out of its previous orbit. It may even have created a new meteor shower for Earth! Hera is going to learn more about just what happened when DART impacted the little asteroid. ESA said there are three mysteries that Hera will help solve:
2) Hera will map the crater created by DART’s impact down to 10 cm resolution to help scientists better understand how the surface material responded to the collision. It’s possible that there is no crater at all, rather the impact reshaped the entire asteroid! pic.twitter.com/jmp7K4MXjT
Hera's investigation of Dimorphos and Didymos will complete the story that DART began two years ago and turn asteroid deflection into a well understood and repeatable technique for protecting Earth from a potential asteroid impact. Stay tuned for launch next month!… pic.twitter.com/L3Wjg16U7m
The original plan was for DART and Hera to work as a double spacecraft, but over the years of planning, they became separate missions. Ian Carnelli of ESA’s Hera mission said:
The pair are designed to function separately … their overall science return will be boosted greatly by being able to combine their results.
While scientists closely monitored the 2022 DART impact from Earth, the earthly observations didn’t tell scientists many things about Dimorphos that Hera can learn from close range. Hera will inspect the asteroid moonlet to determine its precise mass, what it’s made up of, whether it’s solid or a loose pile of rubble, and what exactly the DART impact crater looks like.
Hera’s contributions
Besides the main spacecraft, Hera will deploy two shoebox-sized satellites. Milani is in charge of spectral surface observations, and Juventas will take the first radar soundings in the heart of an asteroid.
View larger. | DART will make its mark on Dimorphos, and Hera will come along behind it to measure the impact. Image via ESA.
The #HeraMission for asteroid planetary defence will take selfies once in space – here is the approximate field of view of its Spacecraft Monitoring Camera, looking over Hera's instrument-hosting 'Asteroid Deck' https://t.co/VqXqgiRqKVpic.twitter.com/KBJKM6jl3H
This graphic compares the size of the asteroid moonlet Dimorphos to the Colosseum in Rome, Italy. Image via ESA.
Bottom line: The Hera mission is scheduled to launch from Kennedy Space Center on October 7, 2024. Hera will explore the asteroid Dimorphos, which the DART mission hit as a test of planetary defense in 2022.
Scientists say octopuses punch uncooperative fish when they are together on group hunts.
Octopuses punch fish to keep them in line during group hunts. When a fish doesn’t cooperate or tries to steal prey, the octopus punches it as a way to assert control and maintain order.
Fish and octopuses benefit from hunting together. Fish act as scouts, while the octopuses act as leaders and keep the group organized.
Octopuses use their arms to explore cracks and crevices fish cannot reach. And the fish eat prey that escapes from the octopuses.
Octopuses punch unruly fish on group hunts
Scientists have observed octopuses and fish hunting together across the globe. These different species cooperate in order to pull food from difficult-to-reach sources. But there’s definitely a hierarchy, the University of Konstanz said on September 17, 2024, with octopuses punching fish that get out of line.
Lead author Eduardo Sampaio of the Max Plank Institute of Animal Behavior and team published their study in the peer-reviewedNature Ecology and Evolution on September 23, 2024.
The octopus (looking a little like Jabba the Hutt here) directs the behavior of other fish by punching those that get out of line. See the brown and white striped fish with the black tips to the back right of the octopus? That’s a blacktip grouper. Octopuses find them especially punchable. Image via Eduardo Sampaio/ University of Konstanz.
Watching interspecies cooperation
Eduardo Sampaio and his team have observed and filmed octopuses hunting in concert with fish in Israel, Egypt and Australia. Their hours of footage have helped them learn how octopuses and fish work together to find food. Fish guide the octopus to the prey, and then the octopus uses its flexible arms to reach in and grab the cowering meal. And different fish can play different roles. For instance, goatfish scout and explore the area, leading others along, but the octopus is in charge of the timing and initiation of group movement.
In fact, you could say the octopus is the leader of the hunt. When a fish gets out of line, the octopus will dart out an arm at the fish, punching it and propelling it away. In most animal groups, the leader is the animal that more literal leads the group forward on hunts, etc. But in this situation, the octopus leads the group by directing the behavior of others.
The scientists used the term “partner control mechanisms” as a euphemism for when an octopus punches a fish that gets out of line. The scientists also found that octopuses were much more likely to punch blacktip grouper versus a blue goatfish. Sampaio said:
These results broaden our understanding of leadership and sociality, emphasizing the complexity and adaptability of social interactions in nature.
How they all benefit
This unique look at interspecies collaboration shows how they can benefit from each other. The octopus benefits by finding prey more easily, and the fish benefit by catching what the octopus doesn’t. Sampaio said:
This beneficial interaction enables fish to acquire otherwise unreachable prey, and octopuses to conserve energy by focusing on high-quality food sources, while exerting control and providing feedback within the group, highlighting the sophisticated dynamics of marine life collaboration.
Sampaio also said:
When the octopus catches the prey it also kills it. One item of prey is not divided, it is taken by whoever catches the prey first! However, because the interaction between the fish and octopus repeat several times during a hunt, prey is ‘shared’ in the sense that sometimes the octopus catches the prey, and other times fish catch the prey.
Bottom line: Scientists studying hours of footage of octopuses and fish hunting together found that octopuses punch the uncooperative fish and are the leaders of the hunt.
Scientists say octopuses punch uncooperative fish when they are together on group hunts.
Octopuses punch fish to keep them in line during group hunts. When a fish doesn’t cooperate or tries to steal prey, the octopus punches it as a way to assert control and maintain order.
Fish and octopuses benefit from hunting together. Fish act as scouts, while the octopuses act as leaders and keep the group organized.
Octopuses use their arms to explore cracks and crevices fish cannot reach. And the fish eat prey that escapes from the octopuses.
Octopuses punch unruly fish on group hunts
Scientists have observed octopuses and fish hunting together across the globe. These different species cooperate in order to pull food from difficult-to-reach sources. But there’s definitely a hierarchy, the University of Konstanz said on September 17, 2024, with octopuses punching fish that get out of line.
Lead author Eduardo Sampaio of the Max Plank Institute of Animal Behavior and team published their study in the peer-reviewedNature Ecology and Evolution on September 23, 2024.
The octopus (looking a little like Jabba the Hutt here) directs the behavior of other fish by punching those that get out of line. See the brown and white striped fish with the black tips to the back right of the octopus? That’s a blacktip grouper. Octopuses find them especially punchable. Image via Eduardo Sampaio/ University of Konstanz.
Watching interspecies cooperation
Eduardo Sampaio and his team have observed and filmed octopuses hunting in concert with fish in Israel, Egypt and Australia. Their hours of footage have helped them learn how octopuses and fish work together to find food. Fish guide the octopus to the prey, and then the octopus uses its flexible arms to reach in and grab the cowering meal. And different fish can play different roles. For instance, goatfish scout and explore the area, leading others along, but the octopus is in charge of the timing and initiation of group movement.
In fact, you could say the octopus is the leader of the hunt. When a fish gets out of line, the octopus will dart out an arm at the fish, punching it and propelling it away. In most animal groups, the leader is the animal that more literal leads the group forward on hunts, etc. But in this situation, the octopus leads the group by directing the behavior of others.
The scientists used the term “partner control mechanisms” as a euphemism for when an octopus punches a fish that gets out of line. The scientists also found that octopuses were much more likely to punch blacktip grouper versus a blue goatfish. Sampaio said:
These results broaden our understanding of leadership and sociality, emphasizing the complexity and adaptability of social interactions in nature.
How they all benefit
This unique look at interspecies collaboration shows how they can benefit from each other. The octopus benefits by finding prey more easily, and the fish benefit by catching what the octopus doesn’t. Sampaio said:
This beneficial interaction enables fish to acquire otherwise unreachable prey, and octopuses to conserve energy by focusing on high-quality food sources, while exerting control and providing feedback within the group, highlighting the sophisticated dynamics of marine life collaboration.
Sampaio also said:
When the octopus catches the prey it also kills it. One item of prey is not divided, it is taken by whoever catches the prey first! However, because the interaction between the fish and octopus repeat several times during a hunt, prey is ‘shared’ in the sense that sometimes the octopus catches the prey, and other times fish catch the prey.
Bottom line: Scientists studying hours of footage of octopuses and fish hunting together found that octopuses punch the uncooperative fish and are the leaders of the hunt.
Zebrafish exposed to light pollution at night exhibited anxiety-type behaviors. And even the next generation of fish showed an effect. Image via Peter Kuznetsov/ Pixabay.
Zebrafish exposed to light pollution at night showed signs of anxiety, such as swimming less and staying close to aquarium walls.
Blue light, like that from phones and other devices, caused the strongest anxiety reactions, with fish feeling the effects after just five nights.
The next generation of zebrafish also showed anxiety-related behaviors, even without direct exposure to the light, suggesting lasting effects across generations.
Light pollution affects fish into the next generation
A new study showed that fish exposed to artificial light at night not only exhibited behaviors associated with anxiety, but their offspring, who were not exposed to the lights, then also exhibited these behaviors. On September 23, 2024, scientists from the Institute of Hydrobiology Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior said they studied zebrafish exposed to artificial light. They disrupted the natural dark-light cycles. While all forms of night lighting produced a negative effect on the fish, blue light – the kind emitted by our phones and other devices – was the most harmful.
Artificial light at night can disrupt the natural behavior, physiology and circadian rhythms of organisms exposed to it, and therefore presents a significant and widespread ecological concern.
The scientists published their peer-reviewed study in the December 2024 volume of Science of the Total Environment.
The study
The scientists exposed female zebrafish to all-night lighting in their aquariums. They exposed the fish to nine separate wavelengths across the visible spectrum along with white light. The intensity of the lighting was set to mimic that of streetlights at a distance.
Sleep is one of the main processes of animals that is disrupted by artificial light at night. So we were curious to know what that means for their ability to navigate their lives. In other words, what does it mean for their behavior? The light levels that we used in our study matched what is already shining into the homes of animals at night through the many sources we place outdoors. And we found extremely strong and clear negative effects on the behavior of fish and their offspring after only a few bright nights.
Blue light is particularly bad
The experiment lasted for eight nights. The result was that the fish in the study exhibited anxiety-like behaviors. They swam less, stuck closer together and hugged the walls of the aquarium. And light at the blue end of the spectrum was worse. Fish exposed to the blue light exhibited the anxiety sooner, after only five nights.
Co-author Aneesh Bose of the Max Plank Institute said:
This is consistent with what is known in humans, that exposure to the blue light of our electronic displays has the biggest effect on our sleep and possibly other physiological cycles.
Artificial lights at night are all around us. Outside, we’re bombarded with streetlights, building and home exterior lights, advertisements and security lighting. They shine onto both land and water. And even inside our homes, TVs, smart phones, tablets and other devices surround us with blue light, sometimes even up until the time we close our eyes for the night’s sleep.
Blue light, such as that from smart phones, has an impact on the health of humans and fish. Image via Cottonbro/ Pexels.
Light pollution affected the next generation
But it wasn’t just the subjects in the study that felt an impact. The scientists then allowed the zebrafish in the study – all female – to breed. They raised the resulting offspring under normal lightning conditions. Yet these fish still exhibited decreased daytime movement, despite not having the exposure of the night lighting themselves.
The offspring of the zebrafish in the study also showed a decrease in swimming, despite not having firsthand exposure to the lighting at night. Image via aboodi vesakaran/ Pexels.
Light, sleep deprivation, anxiety
The study aimed to see if the light affected the fish, and it did. But the study did not set out to answer why it affected the fish. However, the researchers have ideas. They think sleep deprivation leads to the anxiety-type behaviors in the fish. It would explain why their anxiety behaviors were not immediate but cropped up after five to eight nights. Bose said:
The fish could pull a few all-nighters, but after too many nights of disrupted sleep it eventually caught up to them.
Minimize the use of blue-wavelength light
So light pollution has negative effects for a broad spectrum of life on Earth, from humans down to fish. Co-author Ming Duan of the Institute of Hydrobiology Chinese Academy of Sciences said:
We found that light pollution disrupted the natural behavior of fish, and this disruption may have fitness and performance consequences. Many of the places we light up at night are close to animal habitats. The best thing we can do is to minimize the use of blue-wavelength light sources where animals are trying to sleep.
Bottom line: A new study showed fish exposed to light pollution at night exhibited anxiety-like behavior, and the lighting even affected the next generation of fish.
Zebrafish exposed to light pollution at night exhibited anxiety-type behaviors. And even the next generation of fish showed an effect. Image via Peter Kuznetsov/ Pixabay.
Zebrafish exposed to light pollution at night showed signs of anxiety, such as swimming less and staying close to aquarium walls.
Blue light, like that from phones and other devices, caused the strongest anxiety reactions, with fish feeling the effects after just five nights.
The next generation of zebrafish also showed anxiety-related behaviors, even without direct exposure to the light, suggesting lasting effects across generations.
Light pollution affects fish into the next generation
A new study showed that fish exposed to artificial light at night not only exhibited behaviors associated with anxiety, but their offspring, who were not exposed to the lights, then also exhibited these behaviors. On September 23, 2024, scientists from the Institute of Hydrobiology Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior said they studied zebrafish exposed to artificial light. They disrupted the natural dark-light cycles. While all forms of night lighting produced a negative effect on the fish, blue light – the kind emitted by our phones and other devices – was the most harmful.
Artificial light at night can disrupt the natural behavior, physiology and circadian rhythms of organisms exposed to it, and therefore presents a significant and widespread ecological concern.
The scientists published their peer-reviewed study in the December 2024 volume of Science of the Total Environment.
The study
The scientists exposed female zebrafish to all-night lighting in their aquariums. They exposed the fish to nine separate wavelengths across the visible spectrum along with white light. The intensity of the lighting was set to mimic that of streetlights at a distance.
Sleep is one of the main processes of animals that is disrupted by artificial light at night. So we were curious to know what that means for their ability to navigate their lives. In other words, what does it mean for their behavior? The light levels that we used in our study matched what is already shining into the homes of animals at night through the many sources we place outdoors. And we found extremely strong and clear negative effects on the behavior of fish and their offspring after only a few bright nights.
Blue light is particularly bad
The experiment lasted for eight nights. The result was that the fish in the study exhibited anxiety-like behaviors. They swam less, stuck closer together and hugged the walls of the aquarium. And light at the blue end of the spectrum was worse. Fish exposed to the blue light exhibited the anxiety sooner, after only five nights.
Co-author Aneesh Bose of the Max Plank Institute said:
This is consistent with what is known in humans, that exposure to the blue light of our electronic displays has the biggest effect on our sleep and possibly other physiological cycles.
Artificial lights at night are all around us. Outside, we’re bombarded with streetlights, building and home exterior lights, advertisements and security lighting. They shine onto both land and water. And even inside our homes, TVs, smart phones, tablets and other devices surround us with blue light, sometimes even up until the time we close our eyes for the night’s sleep.
Blue light, such as that from smart phones, has an impact on the health of humans and fish. Image via Cottonbro/ Pexels.
Light pollution affected the next generation
But it wasn’t just the subjects in the study that felt an impact. The scientists then allowed the zebrafish in the study – all female – to breed. They raised the resulting offspring under normal lightning conditions. Yet these fish still exhibited decreased daytime movement, despite not having the exposure of the night lighting themselves.
The offspring of the zebrafish in the study also showed a decrease in swimming, despite not having firsthand exposure to the lighting at night. Image via aboodi vesakaran/ Pexels.
Light, sleep deprivation, anxiety
The study aimed to see if the light affected the fish, and it did. But the study did not set out to answer why it affected the fish. However, the researchers have ideas. They think sleep deprivation leads to the anxiety-type behaviors in the fish. It would explain why their anxiety behaviors were not immediate but cropped up after five to eight nights. Bose said:
The fish could pull a few all-nighters, but after too many nights of disrupted sleep it eventually caught up to them.
Minimize the use of blue-wavelength light
So light pollution has negative effects for a broad spectrum of life on Earth, from humans down to fish. Co-author Ming Duan of the Institute of Hydrobiology Chinese Academy of Sciences said:
We found that light pollution disrupted the natural behavior of fish, and this disruption may have fitness and performance consequences. Many of the places we light up at night are close to animal habitats. The best thing we can do is to minimize the use of blue-wavelength light sources where animals are trying to sleep.
Bottom line: A new study showed fish exposed to light pollution at night exhibited anxiety-like behavior, and the lighting even affected the next generation of fish.
Equuleus the Little Horse is a small, dim constellation that lies southeast of the Summer Triangle. Chart via EarthSky.
Equuleus the Little Horse is the second smallest constellation in the sky. It’s a good target for the Northern Hemisphere’s fall sky, but only by knowing just where to look. The good news is, if you have dark skies and can find the Summer Triangle, we can lead you to Equuleus, too.
Mythology of Equuleus the Little Horse
Equuleus (pronounced Eh-KWOO-lee-us) was the mythological child of Pegasus the Winged Horse. Although in other mythological stories, Equuleus is Celeris, the brother of Pegasus. Yet another myth says that Equuleus is a sea horse, who came into being when Neptune and Athena were having a contest showcasing their powers. In this story, Equuleus was born from Neptune’s trident.
Location and stars of Equuleus
Because Equuleus is the child of Pegasus, they are located next to one another in the night sky. Pegasus is easy to find if you remember its asterism, the Great Square of Pegasus. Then look between the Great Square and the Summer Triangle to find Equuleus. Another way to find Equuleus is to look under the shape of the leaping dolphin in the constellation Delphinus.
Equuleus is the smallest of all the constellations in the Northern Hemisphere (only Crux, in the Southern Hemisphere, is smaller than Equuleus). It is less than 13 degrees wide at its widest point. Its brightest star is a magnitude 3.92 star known as Alpha Equulei, or Kitalpha. It lies 186 light-years away.
A few other stars in the constellation also have Greek letter designations. Two and a half degrees from Alpha Equulei is Beta Equulei, a magnitude 5.16 star located 360 light-years away. Less than five degrees from Alpha Equulei are two stars in close proximity. The magnitude 4.47 Delta Equulei lies one degree from Gamma Equulei, a magnitude 4.7 star. Delta Equulei is closer at a distance of 60 light-years, while Gamma Equulei lies 115 light-years away. Lastly, the magnitude 5.24 star Epsilon Equulei lies in the western corner of the constellation. Epsilon Equulei is 197 light-years away.
The constellation of Equuleus the Little Horse. Image via IAU/ Sky and Telescope.
Equuleus’ deep-sky objects
Equuleus’ tiny size away from the plane of our Milky Way means it misses out on nebulae, clusters and other good deep-sky observing targets. Equuleus contains no Messier objects. And you’ll need a hefty telescope to see any of the galaxies here. They’re better targets for a night at the observatory.
Near the center of the constellation is the spiral galaxy NGC 7040 at a magnitude of 15. Less than two degrees away from Gamma Equulei is another spiral galaxy, NGC 7015, with a magnitude of 13. Finally, the barred spiral galaxy NGC 7046 lies in the southern portion of the constellation near some other, even dimmer galaxies. NGC 7046 has a magnitude of 14.
Bottom line: Equuleus the Little Horse is a diminutive constellation that lies south of the Summer Triangle. September nights are a great time to view the Little Horse.
Equuleus the Little Horse is a small, dim constellation that lies southeast of the Summer Triangle. Chart via EarthSky.
Equuleus the Little Horse is the second smallest constellation in the sky. It’s a good target for the Northern Hemisphere’s fall sky, but only by knowing just where to look. The good news is, if you have dark skies and can find the Summer Triangle, we can lead you to Equuleus, too.
Mythology of Equuleus the Little Horse
Equuleus (pronounced Eh-KWOO-lee-us) was the mythological child of Pegasus the Winged Horse. Although in other mythological stories, Equuleus is Celeris, the brother of Pegasus. Yet another myth says that Equuleus is a sea horse, who came into being when Neptune and Athena were having a contest showcasing their powers. In this story, Equuleus was born from Neptune’s trident.
Location and stars of Equuleus
Because Equuleus is the child of Pegasus, they are located next to one another in the night sky. Pegasus is easy to find if you remember its asterism, the Great Square of Pegasus. Then look between the Great Square and the Summer Triangle to find Equuleus. Another way to find Equuleus is to look under the shape of the leaping dolphin in the constellation Delphinus.
Equuleus is the smallest of all the constellations in the Northern Hemisphere (only Crux, in the Southern Hemisphere, is smaller than Equuleus). It is less than 13 degrees wide at its widest point. Its brightest star is a magnitude 3.92 star known as Alpha Equulei, or Kitalpha. It lies 186 light-years away.
A few other stars in the constellation also have Greek letter designations. Two and a half degrees from Alpha Equulei is Beta Equulei, a magnitude 5.16 star located 360 light-years away. Less than five degrees from Alpha Equulei are two stars in close proximity. The magnitude 4.47 Delta Equulei lies one degree from Gamma Equulei, a magnitude 4.7 star. Delta Equulei is closer at a distance of 60 light-years, while Gamma Equulei lies 115 light-years away. Lastly, the magnitude 5.24 star Epsilon Equulei lies in the western corner of the constellation. Epsilon Equulei is 197 light-years away.
The constellation of Equuleus the Little Horse. Image via IAU/ Sky and Telescope.
Equuleus’ deep-sky objects
Equuleus’ tiny size away from the plane of our Milky Way means it misses out on nebulae, clusters and other good deep-sky observing targets. Equuleus contains no Messier objects. And you’ll need a hefty telescope to see any of the galaxies here. They’re better targets for a night at the observatory.
Near the center of the constellation is the spiral galaxy NGC 7040 at a magnitude of 15. Less than two degrees away from Gamma Equulei is another spiral galaxy, NGC 7015, with a magnitude of 13. Finally, the barred spiral galaxy NGC 7046 lies in the southern portion of the constellation near some other, even dimmer galaxies. NGC 7046 has a magnitude of 14.
Bottom line: Equuleus the Little Horse is a diminutive constellation that lies south of the Summer Triangle. September nights are a great time to view the Little Horse.
The newly-discovered weird galaxy – GS-NDG-9422 – appears as a faint blur in this James Webb Space Telescope image. It could help astronomers better understand galaxy evolution in the early universe. Image via NASA/ ESA/ CSA/ STScI/ Alex Cameron (Oxford). Used with permission.
New Galaxy Discovery: The James Webb Space Telescope found a galaxy where gas shines brighter than its stars.
Understanding how galaxies formed: The discovery may be a missing-link to the evolution between the universe’s first stars and galaxies.
Ongoing Research: Scientists will continue to explore gas’ role in star formation in the early universe.
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) spotted an extreme class of galaxy in the early universe. Astronomers say the discovery of a weird galaxy in the early universe could help us understand how the cosmic story began.
GS-NDG-9422 (9422) formed approximately 1 billion years after the Big Bang. It stood out because it has an odd, never-before-seen light signature that indicated its gas is outshining its stars.
Researchers say this is a new phenomena and a significant discovery. What’s more, it could be the missing-link phase of galactic evolution between the universe’s first stars and familiar, well-established galaxies.
According to the lead researcher Alex Cameron of the University of Oxford:
My first thought in looking at the galaxy’s spectrum was, that’s weird, which is exactly what the Webb telescope was designed to reveal. Totally new phenomena in the early universe that will help us understand how the cosmic story began.
Researchers found gas outshining stars
Cameron reached out to colleague Dr Harley Katz, a theorist, to discuss the strange data. Working together, their team found that their computer models were nearly a perfect match to Webb’s observations. Cosmic gas clouds were heated by very hot, massive stars, to an extent that the gas shone brighter than the stars.
Katz, of Oxford and the University of Chicago said:
It looks like these stars must be much hotter and more massive than what we see in the local universe. Which makes sense because the early universe was a very different environment.
In the local universe, typical hot, massive stars have a temperature ranging between 70,000 to 90,000 degrees Fahrenheit (40,000 to 50,000 degrees Celsius). According to the team, galaxy 9422 has stars hotter than 140,000 degrees Fahrenheit (80,000 degrees Celsius).
The researchers suspect that the galaxy is in a brief phase of intense star formation inside a cloud of dense gas that is producing a large number of massive, hot stars. So many photons of light from the stars are hitting the gas cloud that it is shining extremely brightly.
Gas outshining stars was predicted
In addition to its novelty, nebular gas outshining stars is intriguing because it is something predicted in the environments of the universe’s first generation of stars, which astronomers classify as Population III. They are hypothetical massive stars formed in the early universe and thought to contain only hydrogen and helium.
Katz explained:
We know that this galaxy does not have Population III stars, because the Webb data shows too much chemical complexity. However, its stars are different than what we are familiar with; the exotic stars in this galaxy could be a guide for understanding how galaxies transitioned from primordial stars to the types of galaxies we already know.
At this point, galaxy 9422 is one example of this phase of galaxy development, so there are still many questions to answer. Are these conditions common in galaxies during this period, or a rare occurrence? What more can they tell us about even earlier phases of galaxy evolution?
Cameron, Katz and their research colleagues are now identifying more galaxies to add to this population. This will offer a better understanding of what was happening in the universe within the first billion years after the Big Bang.
Cameron concluded:
It’s a very exciting time, to be able to use the Webb telescope to explore this time in the universe that was once inaccessible. We are just at the beginning of new discoveries and understanding.
Bottom line: Researchers using the James Webb Space Telescope discovered a galaxy in the early universe whose gas outshines its stars. Researchers say this could be a clue to what was happening in the early universe.
The newly-discovered weird galaxy – GS-NDG-9422 – appears as a faint blur in this James Webb Space Telescope image. It could help astronomers better understand galaxy evolution in the early universe. Image via NASA/ ESA/ CSA/ STScI/ Alex Cameron (Oxford). Used with permission.
New Galaxy Discovery: The James Webb Space Telescope found a galaxy where gas shines brighter than its stars.
Understanding how galaxies formed: The discovery may be a missing-link to the evolution between the universe’s first stars and galaxies.
Ongoing Research: Scientists will continue to explore gas’ role in star formation in the early universe.
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) spotted an extreme class of galaxy in the early universe. Astronomers say the discovery of a weird galaxy in the early universe could help us understand how the cosmic story began.
GS-NDG-9422 (9422) formed approximately 1 billion years after the Big Bang. It stood out because it has an odd, never-before-seen light signature that indicated its gas is outshining its stars.
Researchers say this is a new phenomena and a significant discovery. What’s more, it could be the missing-link phase of galactic evolution between the universe’s first stars and familiar, well-established galaxies.
According to the lead researcher Alex Cameron of the University of Oxford:
My first thought in looking at the galaxy’s spectrum was, that’s weird, which is exactly what the Webb telescope was designed to reveal. Totally new phenomena in the early universe that will help us understand how the cosmic story began.
Researchers found gas outshining stars
Cameron reached out to colleague Dr Harley Katz, a theorist, to discuss the strange data. Working together, their team found that their computer models were nearly a perfect match to Webb’s observations. Cosmic gas clouds were heated by very hot, massive stars, to an extent that the gas shone brighter than the stars.
Katz, of Oxford and the University of Chicago said:
It looks like these stars must be much hotter and more massive than what we see in the local universe. Which makes sense because the early universe was a very different environment.
In the local universe, typical hot, massive stars have a temperature ranging between 70,000 to 90,000 degrees Fahrenheit (40,000 to 50,000 degrees Celsius). According to the team, galaxy 9422 has stars hotter than 140,000 degrees Fahrenheit (80,000 degrees Celsius).
The researchers suspect that the galaxy is in a brief phase of intense star formation inside a cloud of dense gas that is producing a large number of massive, hot stars. So many photons of light from the stars are hitting the gas cloud that it is shining extremely brightly.
Gas outshining stars was predicted
In addition to its novelty, nebular gas outshining stars is intriguing because it is something predicted in the environments of the universe’s first generation of stars, which astronomers classify as Population III. They are hypothetical massive stars formed in the early universe and thought to contain only hydrogen and helium.
Katz explained:
We know that this galaxy does not have Population III stars, because the Webb data shows too much chemical complexity. However, its stars are different than what we are familiar with; the exotic stars in this galaxy could be a guide for understanding how galaxies transitioned from primordial stars to the types of galaxies we already know.
At this point, galaxy 9422 is one example of this phase of galaxy development, so there are still many questions to answer. Are these conditions common in galaxies during this period, or a rare occurrence? What more can they tell us about even earlier phases of galaxy evolution?
Cameron, Katz and their research colleagues are now identifying more galaxies to add to this population. This will offer a better understanding of what was happening in the universe within the first billion years after the Big Bang.
Cameron concluded:
It’s a very exciting time, to be able to use the Webb telescope to explore this time in the universe that was once inaccessible. We are just at the beginning of new discoveries and understanding.
Bottom line: Researchers using the James Webb Space Telescope discovered a galaxy in the early universe whose gas outshines its stars. Researchers say this could be a clue to what was happening in the early universe.
