Ancient life on Mars? Rover finds intriguing ‘leopard spots’

View larger. | The Perseverance rover found this rock – nicknamed Cheyava Falls – on Mars in July 2024. The “leopard spots” are the small irregular whitish spots with black edges. NASA said they may be evidence for microbial life on Mars billions of years ago. Image via NASA/ JPL-Caltech/ MSSS.

• NASA’s Perseverance rover found a rock, nicknamed Cheyava Falls, with distinctive “leopard spots” on it. The spots are small, irregular and whitish with black edges. The rock is in an ancient Martian riverbed in Jezero crater.
• The rock shows chemical signatures and structures that could have been produced by microbial life billions of years ago. Besides the spots, the signatures and structures include organic compounds and mineral veins, indicating past interaction with water.
• The samples collected by Perseverance highlight the need for the Mars Sample Return Program. This mission, still in the planning stages, would return rock samples, including this one, to Earth for further analysis.

Evidence of life on Mars?

NASA’s Perseverance rover recently came across a rock that “possesses qualities that fit the definition of a possible indicator of ancient life.” Wait, what? The arrowhead-shaped rock, nicknamed Cheyava Falls, is in an ancient riverbed the rover has been exploring. The river once fed into a lake in Jezero crater billions of years ago. As NASA said on July 25, 2024, the rock contains chemical signatures and structures that could have been made by microscopic life. This includes intriguing little white spots with black edges that the mission team calls “leopard spots.” Could they be evidence for ancient life on Mars?

This isn’t proof of past life on Mars, not yet, anyway. But scientists are excited about the discovery.

Our @NASAPersevere Mars rover has found an interesting rock that could be one of the best signs yet that ancient microbial life may have once existed on the Red Planet. However, we'll need to do more research to know for sure: https://t.co/tWpQD6Rcg6 pic.twitter.com/wOfA62VYQo

— NASA (@NASA) July 25, 2024

Look closely ?

These “leopard spots” on a Martian rock are clues pointing to possibly the best signs of ancient microbial life we’ve found yet on Mars. To know for sure, we need to study the rock in labs on Earth.

More on @NASAPersevere's findings: https://t.co/Bo7eiUdGnA pic.twitter.com/0UM4TtM0m0

— NASA JPL (@NASAJPL) July 25, 2024

An intriguing Mars rock

Perseverance found Cheyava Falls along the northern edge of Neretva Vallis, an ancient river valley. The river valley measures about 1,300 feet (400 meters) wide. Mission scientists had planned the route through Neretva Vallis so the rover could visit the most interesting locations.

Nicola Fox is associate administrator, Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington, D.C. She said:

We have designed the route for Perseverance to ensure that it goes to areas with the potential for interesting scientific samples. This trip through the Neretva Vallis riverbed paid off as we found something we’ve never seen before, which will give our scientists so much to study.

Perseverance used its SHERLOC (Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman & Luminescence for Organics & Chemicals) instrument to analyze the rock. The rover also collected a sample from the rock on July 22, 2024, the 22nd one so far. And, like previous samples, it is being stored in a metal tube for return to Earth at a later date.

View larger. | A closer look at the “leopard spots.” Image via NASA/ JPL-Caltech/ MSSS.

Mineral veins, water and organics

Why is this rock so interesting? There are several reasons. First, like many other rocks seen by the rovers, this one is filled with calcium sulfate mineral veins. That is evidence the rock once interacted with water.

In addition, it also contains organic compounds. Those are carbon-based molecules that are the building block of life on Earth. By themselves, they don’t prove the existence of life, since they can also form without life. But the surrounding context and other details can be suggestive as to whether life – as in microbes – was involved or not. That’s why this rock is so special. It is suggestive of possible past microbial life.

Ken Farley, Perseverance project scientist at Caltech in Pasadena, California, said:

Cheyava Falls is the most puzzling, complex and potentially important rock yet investigated by Perseverance. On the one hand, we have our first compelling detection of organic material, distinctive colorful spots indicative of chemical reactions that microbial life could use as an energy source, and clear evidence that water – necessary for life – once passed through the rock. On the other hand, we have been unable to determine exactly how the rock formed and to what extent nearby rocks may have heated Cheyava Falls and contributed to these features.

Kevin Hand, SHERLOC’s principal investigator at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, added:

This is the kind of key observation that SHERLOC was built for, to seek organic matter as it is an essential component of a search for past life.

Morgan Cable, a scientist on the Perseverance team at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, discusses the new findings from Perseverance. Video via NASA/ JPL-Caltech/ YouTube.

Life on Mars? The intriguing leopard spots

Apart from the mineral veins and organic compounds, something else caught the eyes of mission scientists: the “leopard spots.” Between the bands of calcium sulfate are reddish regions on the rock, most likely hematite. The rover used SHERLOC to take a closer look at them and saw something interesting. It saw many tiny irregular light-colored spots with black edges, only about 0.004 inches (1 millimeter) in size. They kind of looked like the spots you see on leopards, hence the nickname.

Perseverance’s PIXL (Planetary Instrument for X-ray Lithochemistry) instrument found the black edges, or halos, contain both iron and phosphate.

So, could the spots be evidence for past life? Maybe. David Flannery is an astrobiologist and member of the Perseverance science team from the Queensland University of Technology in Australia. He commented on the spots, saying:

These spots are a big surprise. On Earth, these types of features in rocks are often associated with the fossilized record of microbes living in the subsurface.

Indeed, on Earth, similar spots can be an energy source for microbes. Chemical reactions involving hematite can release iron and phosphate, and also turn red rock to white.

The rover science team said the Cheyava Falls rock may originally have been made with organic molecules in it. The mud later hardened into rock. Later, more water seeped into cracks in the rock, creating mineral deposits. Those deposits could have included both the mineral veins and leopard spots.

View larger. | Perseverance captured this view of a region called Bright Angel in the ancient riverbed Neretva Vallis. The rock Cheyava Falls is located just right of center. Image via NASA/ JPL-Caltech/ ASU/ MSSS.

Other possible explanations

Mission scientists are still looking at other possible explanations for the unusual spots as well. One is that olivine, a mineral that forms in magma, may have reacted with sulfate at high temperatures to create the spots. Perseverance did also find olivine crystals in Cheyava Falls. The scientists said rocks with olivine probably first formed further along the rim of the river valley.

For now, scientists will continue to study the findings from Perseverance. Any definitive results will likely have to wait until the samples the rover has collected can be brought back to Earth in the Mars Sample Return Program. Despite Perseverance collecting rock samples for return to Earth, the sample return program is still in the planning stages.

Perseverance has done pretty much all it can do by itself with its onboard lab and instruments. As Farley noted:

We have zapped that rock with lasers and X-rays and imaged it literally day and night from just about every angle imaginable. Scientifically, Perseverance has nothing more to give. To fully understand what really happened in that Martian river valley at Jezero Crater billions of years ago, we’d want to bring the Cheyava Falls sample back to Earth, so it can be studied with the powerful instruments available in laboratories.

Bottom line: Has NASA’s Perseverance rover found traces of ancient life on Mars? A rock with puzzling “leopard spots” has scientists intrigued and puzzled.

Via NASA

Read more: Perseverance rover explores Bright Angel in ancient riverbed

Read more: Martian rock crushed by Curiosity hides a surprise!

The post Ancient life on Mars? Rover finds intriguing ‘leopard spots’ first appeared on EarthSky.

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View larger. | The Perseverance rover found this rock – nicknamed Cheyava Falls – on Mars in July 2024. The “leopard spots” are the small irregular whitish spots with black edges. NASA said they may be evidence for microbial life on Mars billions of years ago. Image via NASA/ JPL-Caltech/ MSSS.

• NASA’s Perseverance rover found a rock, nicknamed Cheyava Falls, with distinctive “leopard spots” on it. The spots are small, irregular and whitish with black edges. The rock is in an ancient Martian riverbed in Jezero crater.
• The rock shows chemical signatures and structures that could have been produced by microbial life billions of years ago. Besides the spots, the signatures and structures include organic compounds and mineral veins, indicating past interaction with water.
• The samples collected by Perseverance highlight the need for the Mars Sample Return Program. This mission, still in the planning stages, would return rock samples, including this one, to Earth for further analysis.

Evidence of life on Mars?

NASA’s Perseverance rover recently came across a rock that “possesses qualities that fit the definition of a possible indicator of ancient life.” Wait, what? The arrowhead-shaped rock, nicknamed Cheyava Falls, is in an ancient riverbed the rover has been exploring. The river once fed into a lake in Jezero crater billions of years ago. As NASA said on July 25, 2024, the rock contains chemical signatures and structures that could have been made by microscopic life. This includes intriguing little white spots with black edges that the mission team calls “leopard spots.” Could they be evidence for ancient life on Mars?

This isn’t proof of past life on Mars, not yet, anyway. But scientists are excited about the discovery.

Our @NASAPersevere Mars rover has found an interesting rock that could be one of the best signs yet that ancient microbial life may have once existed on the Red Planet. However, we'll need to do more research to know for sure: https://t.co/tWpQD6Rcg6 pic.twitter.com/wOfA62VYQo

— NASA (@NASA) July 25, 2024

Look closely ?

These “leopard spots” on a Martian rock are clues pointing to possibly the best signs of ancient microbial life we’ve found yet on Mars. To know for sure, we need to study the rock in labs on Earth.

More on @NASAPersevere's findings: https://t.co/Bo7eiUdGnA pic.twitter.com/0UM4TtM0m0

— NASA JPL (@NASAJPL) July 25, 2024

An intriguing Mars rock

Perseverance found Cheyava Falls along the northern edge of Neretva Vallis, an ancient river valley. The river valley measures about 1,300 feet (400 meters) wide. Mission scientists had planned the route through Neretva Vallis so the rover could visit the most interesting locations.

Nicola Fox is associate administrator, Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington, D.C. She said:

We have designed the route for Perseverance to ensure that it goes to areas with the potential for interesting scientific samples. This trip through the Neretva Vallis riverbed paid off as we found something we’ve never seen before, which will give our scientists so much to study.

Perseverance used its SHERLOC (Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman & Luminescence for Organics & Chemicals) instrument to analyze the rock. The rover also collected a sample from the rock on July 22, 2024, the 22nd one so far. And, like previous samples, it is being stored in a metal tube for return to Earth at a later date.

View larger. | A closer look at the “leopard spots.” Image via NASA/ JPL-Caltech/ MSSS.

Mineral veins, water and organics

Why is this rock so interesting? There are several reasons. First, like many other rocks seen by the rovers, this one is filled with calcium sulfate mineral veins. That is evidence the rock once interacted with water.

In addition, it also contains organic compounds. Those are carbon-based molecules that are the building block of life on Earth. By themselves, they don’t prove the existence of life, since they can also form without life. But the surrounding context and other details can be suggestive as to whether life – as in microbes – was involved or not. That’s why this rock is so special. It is suggestive of possible past microbial life.

Ken Farley, Perseverance project scientist at Caltech in Pasadena, California, said:

Cheyava Falls is the most puzzling, complex and potentially important rock yet investigated by Perseverance. On the one hand, we have our first compelling detection of organic material, distinctive colorful spots indicative of chemical reactions that microbial life could use as an energy source, and clear evidence that water – necessary for life – once passed through the rock. On the other hand, we have been unable to determine exactly how the rock formed and to what extent nearby rocks may have heated Cheyava Falls and contributed to these features.

Kevin Hand, SHERLOC’s principal investigator at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, added:

This is the kind of key observation that SHERLOC was built for, to seek organic matter as it is an essential component of a search for past life.

Morgan Cable, a scientist on the Perseverance team at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, discusses the new findings from Perseverance. Video via NASA/ JPL-Caltech/ YouTube.

Life on Mars? The intriguing leopard spots

Apart from the mineral veins and organic compounds, something else caught the eyes of mission scientists: the “leopard spots.” Between the bands of calcium sulfate are reddish regions on the rock, most likely hematite. The rover used SHERLOC to take a closer look at them and saw something interesting. It saw many tiny irregular light-colored spots with black edges, only about 0.004 inches (1 millimeter) in size. They kind of looked like the spots you see on leopards, hence the nickname.

Perseverance’s PIXL (Planetary Instrument for X-ray Lithochemistry) instrument found the black edges, or halos, contain both iron and phosphate.

So, could the spots be evidence for past life? Maybe. David Flannery is an astrobiologist and member of the Perseverance science team from the Queensland University of Technology in Australia. He commented on the spots, saying:

These spots are a big surprise. On Earth, these types of features in rocks are often associated with the fossilized record of microbes living in the subsurface.

Indeed, on Earth, similar spots can be an energy source for microbes. Chemical reactions involving hematite can release iron and phosphate, and also turn red rock to white.

The rover science team said the Cheyava Falls rock may originally have been made with organic molecules in it. The mud later hardened into rock. Later, more water seeped into cracks in the rock, creating mineral deposits. Those deposits could have included both the mineral veins and leopard spots.

View larger. | Perseverance captured this view of a region called Bright Angel in the ancient riverbed Neretva Vallis. The rock Cheyava Falls is located just right of center. Image via NASA/ JPL-Caltech/ ASU/ MSSS.

Other possible explanations

Mission scientists are still looking at other possible explanations for the unusual spots as well. One is that olivine, a mineral that forms in magma, may have reacted with sulfate at high temperatures to create the spots. Perseverance did also find olivine crystals in Cheyava Falls. The scientists said rocks with olivine probably first formed further along the rim of the river valley.

For now, scientists will continue to study the findings from Perseverance. Any definitive results will likely have to wait until the samples the rover has collected can be brought back to Earth in the Mars Sample Return Program. Despite Perseverance collecting rock samples for return to Earth, the sample return program is still in the planning stages.

Perseverance has done pretty much all it can do by itself with its onboard lab and instruments. As Farley noted:

We have zapped that rock with lasers and X-rays and imaged it literally day and night from just about every angle imaginable. Scientifically, Perseverance has nothing more to give. To fully understand what really happened in that Martian river valley at Jezero Crater billions of years ago, we’d want to bring the Cheyava Falls sample back to Earth, so it can be studied with the powerful instruments available in laboratories.

Bottom line: Has NASA’s Perseverance rover found traces of ancient life on Mars? A rock with puzzling “leopard spots” has scientists intrigued and puzzled.

Via NASA

Read more: Perseverance rover explores Bright Angel in ancient riverbed

Read more: Martian rock crushed by Curiosity hides a surprise!

The post Ancient life on Mars? Rover finds intriguing ‘leopard spots’ first appeared on EarthSky.

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Do Titan’s seas resemble earthly seas? Researchers say yes

View larger. | This is a liquid sea on an alien world. Ligeia Mare is the 2nd-largest sea on Saturn’s large moon Titan. You can also see rivers in this radar image from the Cassini spacecraft in 2013. A new study shows that Titan’s seas, lake and rivers behave much like their counterparts on Earth even though they are composed of liquid methane and ethane. Image via NASA.

• Saturn’s large moon, Titan, has seas. The seas are liquid, but the liquid isn’t water. It’s methane and ethane.
• Researchers gained insight into the seas using radar data from the Cassini mission. They noted roughness and composition variations, and the seas’ reflectivity and surface waves.
• They found Titan’s seas behave in ways much like Earth’s water bodies, despite being made of methane and ethane. The researchers said they are influenced by similar meteorological processes and mixing dynamics.

Late last month, researchers said the methane/ethane seas of Saturn’s moon Titan – and smaller lakes on Titan – have waves that shape their shorelines. Now, another international team of researchers has learned more about Titan’s alien seas. Using radar data from NASA’s Cassini mission, the team said on July 16, 2024, that it has new findings about both the roughness and composition of Titan’s seas. One fascinating result: the rivers feeding into Titan’s seas mix methane and ethane, they said, in a way akin to freshwater rivers flowing into Earth’s saltwater oceans.

The researchers published the peer-reviewed results in Nature Communications on July 16, 2024.

Radar data from Cassini

Cassini’s mission at Saturn and its moons ended on September 15, 2017. But there is still tons of data for scientists to analyze, including radar data. Cassini used its radar to study Titan’s seas and lakes. Some of the radar data is monostatic. Monostatic radars use a single transmitter, receiver and antenna. For monostatic radars on Earth, both the transmitting and receiving antennas are close to each other in one radar station at the same location.

But Cassini also had bistatic radar, which is composed of multiple monostatic radars of the same frequency. On Earth, the transmitting and receiving antennas are placed apart from each other. In the case of Cassini, it aimed a radio beam from the spacecraft at Titan, which then reflects it toward the receiving antenna on Earth. That reflection is polarized. That means it provides information collected from two independent perspectives, instead of just one as with monostatic radar data. This makes it more useful than just using monostatic radar.

Lead author Valerio Poggiali in the Cornell Center for Astrophysics and Planetary Science (CCAPS) at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, said:

The main difference is that the bistatic information is a more complete dataset, and is sensitive to both the composition of the reflecting surface and to its roughness.

Co-author Philip Nicholson, in the Department of Astronomy (A&S) at Cornell University added:

The successful execution of a bistatic radar experiment requires exquisite choreography between the scientists who design it, Cassini mission planners and navigators, and the team who collects the data at the receiving station.

Observing 3 largest seas on Titan

Cassini conducted three bistatic radar observations of Titan’s seas in 2014, on May 17, June 18 and October 24, and one in 2016, on November 14. It observed surface reflections from the radar as it neared Titan (ingress) and as it moved away again (egress).

Cassini observed the three largest seas on Titan: Kraken Mare, Ligeia Mare and Punga Mare.

Scientists have known that the seas, lakes, rivers and rain on Titan are composed of methane and/or ethane. The new analysis results refine this further.

The surface layers of the seas vary in composition, depending on location and latitude. With this in mind, the southernmost part of Kraken Mare had the highest dielectric constant. On Titan, that’s a measurement of the ability of the seas to reflect radio waves. The results showed that the seas and lakes are much less reflective than those composed of water on Earth. On Earth, water has a dielectric constant of about 80. But on Titan, it is typically only around 1.7.

In addition, the data provided more details about the waves. As detected by Cassini, surface waves were no more than 0.13 inches (3.3 mm) in height. They were slightly higher near coastlines, estuaries and interbasin straits, up to 0.2 inches (5 mm). This may indicate active tidal currents.

View larger. | In 2034, NASA’s Dragonfly mission will arrive at Titan. The drone-like rotorcraft will fly to dozens of locations on Titan. Image via NASA/ Johns Hopkins APL/ Steve Gribben.

Titan’s seas behave much like those on Earth

There also differences in composition between the rivers and seas, with similarities to Earth. Poggiali said:

We also have indications that the rivers feeding the seas are pure methane, until they flow into the open liquid seas, which are more ethane-rich. It’s like on Earth, when freshwater rivers flow into and mix with the salty water of the oceans.

As Nicholson also noted:

This fits nicely with meteorological models for Titan, which predict that the ‘rain’ that falls from its skies is likely to be almost pure methane, but with trace amounts of ethane and other hydrocarbons.

Even with this new study, there is still much to learn about Titan’s seas. The data Cassini sent back to Earth will keep scientists busy for many years to come. Poggiali said:

There is a mine of data that still waits to be fully analyzed in ways that should yield more discoveries. This is only the first step.

NASA’s Dragonfly is the next major mission to Titan. Arriving in 2034, the large drone-like rotorcraft will fly to dozens of locations on Titan.

Bottom line: New analysis of radar data from Cassini shows that Titan’s seas and hydrological systems behave much like those on Earth despite the different compositions.

Source: Surface properties of the seas of Titan as revealed by Cassini mission bistatic radar experiments

Via Cornell University

Read more: Shorelines of Titan’s seas likely shaped by waves

Read more: Ancient lake on Titan could have lasted thousands of years

The post Do Titan’s seas resemble earthly seas? Researchers say yes first appeared on EarthSky.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/nK69I3M

View larger. | This is a liquid sea on an alien world. Ligeia Mare is the 2nd-largest sea on Saturn’s large moon Titan. You can also see rivers in this radar image from the Cassini spacecraft in 2013. A new study shows that Titan’s seas, lake and rivers behave much like their counterparts on Earth even though they are composed of liquid methane and ethane. Image via NASA.

• Saturn’s large moon, Titan, has seas. The seas are liquid, but the liquid isn’t water. It’s methane and ethane.
• Researchers gained insight into the seas using radar data from the Cassini mission. They noted roughness and composition variations, and the seas’ reflectivity and surface waves.
• They found Titan’s seas behave in ways much like Earth’s water bodies, despite being made of methane and ethane. The researchers said they are influenced by similar meteorological processes and mixing dynamics.

Late last month, researchers said the methane/ethane seas of Saturn’s moon Titan – and smaller lakes on Titan – have waves that shape their shorelines. Now, another international team of researchers has learned more about Titan’s alien seas. Using radar data from NASA’s Cassini mission, the team said on July 16, 2024, that it has new findings about both the roughness and composition of Titan’s seas. One fascinating result: the rivers feeding into Titan’s seas mix methane and ethane, they said, in a way akin to freshwater rivers flowing into Earth’s saltwater oceans.

The researchers published the peer-reviewed results in Nature Communications on July 16, 2024.

Radar data from Cassini

Cassini’s mission at Saturn and its moons ended on September 15, 2017. But there is still tons of data for scientists to analyze, including radar data. Cassini used its radar to study Titan’s seas and lakes. Some of the radar data is monostatic. Monostatic radars use a single transmitter, receiver and antenna. For monostatic radars on Earth, both the transmitting and receiving antennas are close to each other in one radar station at the same location.

But Cassini also had bistatic radar, which is composed of multiple monostatic radars of the same frequency. On Earth, the transmitting and receiving antennas are placed apart from each other. In the case of Cassini, it aimed a radio beam from the spacecraft at Titan, which then reflects it toward the receiving antenna on Earth. That reflection is polarized. That means it provides information collected from two independent perspectives, instead of just one as with monostatic radar data. This makes it more useful than just using monostatic radar.

Lead author Valerio Poggiali in the Cornell Center for Astrophysics and Planetary Science (CCAPS) at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, said:

The main difference is that the bistatic information is a more complete dataset, and is sensitive to both the composition of the reflecting surface and to its roughness.

Co-author Philip Nicholson, in the Department of Astronomy (A&S) at Cornell University added:

The successful execution of a bistatic radar experiment requires exquisite choreography between the scientists who design it, Cassini mission planners and navigators, and the team who collects the data at the receiving station.

Observing 3 largest seas on Titan

Cassini conducted three bistatic radar observations of Titan’s seas in 2014, on May 17, June 18 and October 24, and one in 2016, on November 14. It observed surface reflections from the radar as it neared Titan (ingress) and as it moved away again (egress).

Cassini observed the three largest seas on Titan: Kraken Mare, Ligeia Mare and Punga Mare.

Scientists have known that the seas, lakes, rivers and rain on Titan are composed of methane and/or ethane. The new analysis results refine this further.

The surface layers of the seas vary in composition, depending on location and latitude. With this in mind, the southernmost part of Kraken Mare had the highest dielectric constant. On Titan, that’s a measurement of the ability of the seas to reflect radio waves. The results showed that the seas and lakes are much less reflective than those composed of water on Earth. On Earth, water has a dielectric constant of about 80. But on Titan, it is typically only around 1.7.

In addition, the data provided more details about the waves. As detected by Cassini, surface waves were no more than 0.13 inches (3.3 mm) in height. They were slightly higher near coastlines, estuaries and interbasin straits, up to 0.2 inches (5 mm). This may indicate active tidal currents.

View larger. | In 2034, NASA’s Dragonfly mission will arrive at Titan. The drone-like rotorcraft will fly to dozens of locations on Titan. Image via NASA/ Johns Hopkins APL/ Steve Gribben.

Titan’s seas behave much like those on Earth

There also differences in composition between the rivers and seas, with similarities to Earth. Poggiali said:

We also have indications that the rivers feeding the seas are pure methane, until they flow into the open liquid seas, which are more ethane-rich. It’s like on Earth, when freshwater rivers flow into and mix with the salty water of the oceans.

As Nicholson also noted:

This fits nicely with meteorological models for Titan, which predict that the ‘rain’ that falls from its skies is likely to be almost pure methane, but with trace amounts of ethane and other hydrocarbons.

Even with this new study, there is still much to learn about Titan’s seas. The data Cassini sent back to Earth will keep scientists busy for many years to come. Poggiali said:

There is a mine of data that still waits to be fully analyzed in ways that should yield more discoveries. This is only the first step.

NASA’s Dragonfly is the next major mission to Titan. Arriving in 2034, the large drone-like rotorcraft will fly to dozens of locations on Titan.

Bottom line: New analysis of radar data from Cassini shows that Titan’s seas and hydrological systems behave much like those on Earth despite the different compositions.

Source: Surface properties of the seas of Titan as revealed by Cassini mission bistatic radar experiments

Via Cornell University

Read more: Shorelines of Titan’s seas likely shaped by waves

Read more: Ancient lake on Titan could have lasted thousands of years

The post Do Titan’s seas resemble earthly seas? Researchers say yes first appeared on EarthSky.

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Airplane glory: What is it and how to spot one?

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Eliot Herman caught this wonderful airplane glory on June 29, 2022, while flying over Bristol Bay, Alaska. Thank you, Eliot!

Airplane glory: Easy and surprising!

I was looking out the window of an airplane recently, and I saw the airplane’s shadow on a cloud. A rainbow seemed to surround it. What was it?

It sounds like the beautiful optical phenomenon known as the glory, also called an anti-corona or pilot’s bow.

Glories are common. People traveling in airplanes see them all the time. You need the sun to be directly behind your head. In front, you need an ordinary cloud. As you look toward the cloud, look for the shadow of the airplane. A multi-colored circle of light will surround the plane’s shadow. That light is the glory.

The plane’s shadow doesn’t have anything to do with making the glory. The glory and the shadow just happen to be located in the same direction … opposite the sun.

A glory is made of sunlight scattered back toward you. It’s much smaller than a rainbow. And light scattered from the droplets of a cloud, instead of falling raindrops, makes it. Image via Wikipedia (CC BY-SA 3.0).

Here’s what makes a glory

In other words, like a rainbow, a glory is centered on the antisolar point, which coincides with your head’s shadow. And it coincides with the larger shadow of an airplane, if you’re looking out of an airplane window. So this point – the point where you’ll see the glory – must be opposite the sun’s position in the sky.

You might see that, when the sun is high in the sky and you’re on the ground, the antisolar point always lies below your horizon. That’s why, in order to see a glory, the clouds or fog causing it have to be located below the observer, in a straight line with the sun and the observer’s eye.

Want more about what makes a glory? Try this page from Les Cowley of the great website Atmospheric Optics.

Where else you might see a glory?

Nowadays, most people see glories from airplanes. But they’re also commonly observed from very tall buildings. And, before the days of air travel, people spoke of glories they’d seen while mountain climbing. The same conditions – the sun behind and a cloud ahead – can also cast your shadow onto a mist while you’re scaling a tall peak. Then it’s possible to see a glory around the shadow of your own head. That type of glory is called a brocken spectre.

The glory is round, like the halo you sometimes see around the sun or moon. And it comes in muted rainbow colors.

Some glory photos from our EarthSky Community

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Michael Sell of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, captured this image on January 8, 2023, and wrote: “I was able to capture this on my flight from Florida to Wisconsin. After doing some research, I found that this is sometimes referred to as Pilot’s Glory or Pilot’s Halo. If you look close enough, you can even see that there are two rainbows surrounding the shadow.” Thank you, Michael!

Karthik Easvur took this image of an airplane glory on May 7, 2019, over India. Karthik wrote: “The most interesting thing about this phenomenon is that one can find the position of the person on the airplane who took the photo. The point where the center of the glory is on the airplane shadow corresponds to the position of the person who took the photo. I took this photo sitting on the 5th-row seat from the cockpit.” Thank you, Karthik!

Bottom line: An airplane glory is easy to see if you watch for it while traveling by air. The sun has to be behind your head. You’ll see the plane’s shadow cast on a cloud. And a halo of light will surround the shadow.

The post Airplane glory: What is it and how to spot one? first appeared on EarthSky.

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View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Eliot Herman caught this wonderful airplane glory on June 29, 2022, while flying over Bristol Bay, Alaska. Thank you, Eliot!

Airplane glory: Easy and surprising!

I was looking out the window of an airplane recently, and I saw the airplane’s shadow on a cloud. A rainbow seemed to surround it. What was it?

It sounds like the beautiful optical phenomenon known as the glory, also called an anti-corona or pilot’s bow.

Glories are common. People traveling in airplanes see them all the time. You need the sun to be directly behind your head. In front, you need an ordinary cloud. As you look toward the cloud, look for the shadow of the airplane. A multi-colored circle of light will surround the plane’s shadow. That light is the glory.

The plane’s shadow doesn’t have anything to do with making the glory. The glory and the shadow just happen to be located in the same direction … opposite the sun.

A glory is made of sunlight scattered back toward you. It’s much smaller than a rainbow. And light scattered from the droplets of a cloud, instead of falling raindrops, makes it. Image via Wikipedia (CC BY-SA 3.0).

Here’s what makes a glory

In other words, like a rainbow, a glory is centered on the antisolar point, which coincides with your head’s shadow. And it coincides with the larger shadow of an airplane, if you’re looking out of an airplane window. So this point – the point where you’ll see the glory – must be opposite the sun’s position in the sky.

You might see that, when the sun is high in the sky and you’re on the ground, the antisolar point always lies below your horizon. That’s why, in order to see a glory, the clouds or fog causing it have to be located below the observer, in a straight line with the sun and the observer’s eye.

Want more about what makes a glory? Try this page from Les Cowley of the great website Atmospheric Optics.

Where else you might see a glory?

Nowadays, most people see glories from airplanes. But they’re also commonly observed from very tall buildings. And, before the days of air travel, people spoke of glories they’d seen while mountain climbing. The same conditions – the sun behind and a cloud ahead – can also cast your shadow onto a mist while you’re scaling a tall peak. Then it’s possible to see a glory around the shadow of your own head. That type of glory is called a brocken spectre.

The glory is round, like the halo you sometimes see around the sun or moon. And it comes in muted rainbow colors.

Some glory photos from our EarthSky Community

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Michael Sell of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, captured this image on January 8, 2023, and wrote: “I was able to capture this on my flight from Florida to Wisconsin. After doing some research, I found that this is sometimes referred to as Pilot’s Glory or Pilot’s Halo. If you look close enough, you can even see that there are two rainbows surrounding the shadow.” Thank you, Michael!

Karthik Easvur took this image of an airplane glory on May 7, 2019, over India. Karthik wrote: “The most interesting thing about this phenomenon is that one can find the position of the person on the airplane who took the photo. The point where the center of the glory is on the airplane shadow corresponds to the position of the person who took the photo. I took this photo sitting on the 5th-row seat from the cockpit.” Thank you, Karthik!

Bottom line: An airplane glory is easy to see if you watch for it while traveling by air. The sun has to be behind your head. You’ll see the plane’s shadow cast on a cloud. And a halo of light will surround the shadow.

The post Airplane glory: What is it and how to spot one? first appeared on EarthSky.

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Signs of life on ocean moons may be just below the surface

View larger. | View of Europa from NASA’s Juno spacecraft on September 29, 2022. A new study from researchers at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center shows amino acids and potentially other organic molecules from microscopic life on ocean moons could survive just under the icy surface of Europa and Enceladus. Image via NASA/ JPL-Caltech/ SwRI/ MSSS /Image processing: Kevin M. Gill (CC BY 3.0).

• Amino acids and other organic molecules could survive just beneath the ice surface of Saturn’s moon Enceladus and Jupiter’s moon Europa. This suggests future missions may only need to dig a few inches to find these organics.
• Experiments showed amino acids could endure the harsh radiation environments on these moons, particularly in specific areas with minimal meteorite impacts. This supports the feasibility of detecting life-related molecules with shallow surface sampling.
• This discovery enhances the prospects for life-detection missions on these ocean moons. It indicates amino acids from microorganisms might persist better than those mixed with dust under the moons’ conditions.

Signs of life on ocean moons hiding just beneath the surface?

Last December, NASA said amino acids could survive intact in the water vapor plumes of Saturn’s moon Enceladus. Now, a new study from researchers at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, suggests amino acids and other organic molecules could also survive just beneath the surface ice of moons like Enceladus and Europa. On July 18, 2024, the researchers said future landers may only need to dig a few inches deep into the ice to find such organics.

The research team published their intriguing peer-reviewed results in the journal Astrobiology on July 18, 2024.

Icy moons Enceladus and Europa

Enceladus and Europa are both ocean moons. They have global water oceans beneath their outer ice crusts. Those alien seas may be suitable for some forms of life. The surfaces, though, are much harsher with almost no atmospheres to speak of and intense radiation from the sun blasting them.

Some scientists say future robotic lander missions would likely need to drill deep down through the ice crusts to find any possible organic traces of life. Maybe even down into the oceans themselves. Missions like that are a long way off, though.

But now, it seems that may not be necessary after all. The new study reports a lander would only need to dig or drill down a matter of inches on Europa, and even less on Enceladus.

Lead author Alexander Pavlov at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center explained:

Based on our experiments, the “safe” sampling depth for amino acids on Europa is almost 8 inches (around 20 cm) at high latitudes of the trailing hemisphere (hemisphere opposite to the direction of Europa’s motion around Jupiter) in the area where the surface hasn’t been disturbed much by meteorite impacts. Subsurface sampling is not required for the detection of amino acids on Enceladus; these molecules will survive radiolysis (breakdown by radiation) at any location on the Enceladus surface less than a tenth of an inch (under a few mm) from the surface.

Experimenting with amino acids

Amino acids are a key component of life on Earth. They are the building blocks of proteins. They can be created either by life or other kinds of chemistry not related to life. If scientists discovered amino acids on the ocean moons, especially those that life on Earth uses to help build proteins, it would be exciting.

On moons like Enceladus and Europa, amino acids could come up to the surface in a couple of different ways. One is by geysers, already known to exist on Enceladus and tentatively on Europa. The water would bring them up from the ocean below and eject them into space through cracks in the icy surface. Another way is by the slow churning of the ice crust itself, bringing them and other materials to the surface.

With that in mind, the researchers used amino acids in radiolysis experiments to represent possible biomolecules. Radiolysis is the dissociation of molecules by ionizing radiation. The researchers wanted to simulate conditions on the surfaces of the moons and see if the amino could tolerate them without being destroyed.

View larger. | Artist’s concept of a future lander on Europa. According to the new research, a lander may only have to dig or drill a few inches into the surface ice to find amino acids, if they exist there. Image via NASA/ JPL-Caltech.

Ice, dead bacteria and dust

The team combined various amino acids with ice chilled to about -321 Fahrenheit (-196 C) in sealed, airless vials. Then they bathed the vials in gamma rays at various doses. This simulated the deadly radiation coming from the sun, which hits the surfaces of the moons at full blast.

In addition, the team used amino acids in dead bacteria. The reasoning was there might be microbes living in the oceans right now, and when an organism dies, its remains could make it up to the surface where the amino acids it contained could be identified by a lander.

Lastly, the researchers also tested amino acids in ice mixed with silicate dust. This was the first-ever test of amino acids mixed with dust. Such dust could come from either meteorites or from within the moons themselves.

Degradation of amino acids

The radiolysis experiments allowed the researchers to estimate both the best locations and drilling depths in the ice to find 10% of the amino acids. They also determined the rates at which the amino acids would break down, called radiolysis constants.

This was the first testing of amino acids in ice to use both lower and higher radiation doses, and also to replicate surface conditions on the ocean moons. With lower radiation, the amino acids can be altered but are not destroyed. That can, however, still make it difficult to determine whether the amino acids came from life or abiotic (non-life related) chemical processes.

Interestingly, the results showed amino acids coming from microorganisms survived better than those mixed with dust. That’s good news for future missions going back to Enceladus and Europa. As Pavlov explained:

Slow rates of amino acid destruction in biological samples under Europa and Enceladus-like surface conditions bolster the case for future life-detection measurements by Europa and Enceladus lander missions. Our results indicate the rates of potential organic biomolecules’ degradation in silica-rich regions on both Europa and Enceladus are higher than in pure ice and, thus, possible future missions to Europa and Enceladus should be cautious in sampling silica-rich locations on both icy moons.

Earlier this year, another study suggested amino acids could even survive in Venus’ atmosphere, despite the high concentrations of sulfuric acid.

Bottom line: NASA scientists said we could find evidence of life on ocean moons like Europa and Enceladus by looking for amino acids just inches below their icy surfaces.

Source: Radiolytic Effects on Biological and Abiotic Amino Acids in Shallow Subsurface Ices on Europa and Enceladus

Via NASA

Read more: Did Europa’s carbon dioxide come from its ocean?

Read more: Amino acids on Venus? New study says it’s possible

The post Signs of life on ocean moons may be just below the surface first appeared on EarthSky.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/QdwHvst

View larger. | View of Europa from NASA’s Juno spacecraft on September 29, 2022. A new study from researchers at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center shows amino acids and potentially other organic molecules from microscopic life on ocean moons could survive just under the icy surface of Europa and Enceladus. Image via NASA/ JPL-Caltech/ SwRI/ MSSS /Image processing: Kevin M. Gill (CC BY 3.0).

• Amino acids and other organic molecules could survive just beneath the ice surface of Saturn’s moon Enceladus and Jupiter’s moon Europa. This suggests future missions may only need to dig a few inches to find these organics.
• Experiments showed amino acids could endure the harsh radiation environments on these moons, particularly in specific areas with minimal meteorite impacts. This supports the feasibility of detecting life-related molecules with shallow surface sampling.
• This discovery enhances the prospects for life-detection missions on these ocean moons. It indicates amino acids from microorganisms might persist better than those mixed with dust under the moons’ conditions.

Signs of life on ocean moons hiding just beneath the surface?

Last December, NASA said amino acids could survive intact in the water vapor plumes of Saturn’s moon Enceladus. Now, a new study from researchers at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, suggests amino acids and other organic molecules could also survive just beneath the surface ice of moons like Enceladus and Europa. On July 18, 2024, the researchers said future landers may only need to dig a few inches deep into the ice to find such organics.

The research team published their intriguing peer-reviewed results in the journal Astrobiology on July 18, 2024.

Icy moons Enceladus and Europa

Enceladus and Europa are both ocean moons. They have global water oceans beneath their outer ice crusts. Those alien seas may be suitable for some forms of life. The surfaces, though, are much harsher with almost no atmospheres to speak of and intense radiation from the sun blasting them.

Some scientists say future robotic lander missions would likely need to drill deep down through the ice crusts to find any possible organic traces of life. Maybe even down into the oceans themselves. Missions like that are a long way off, though.

But now, it seems that may not be necessary after all. The new study reports a lander would only need to dig or drill down a matter of inches on Europa, and even less on Enceladus.

Lead author Alexander Pavlov at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center explained:

Based on our experiments, the “safe” sampling depth for amino acids on Europa is almost 8 inches (around 20 cm) at high latitudes of the trailing hemisphere (hemisphere opposite to the direction of Europa’s motion around Jupiter) in the area where the surface hasn’t been disturbed much by meteorite impacts. Subsurface sampling is not required for the detection of amino acids on Enceladus; these molecules will survive radiolysis (breakdown by radiation) at any location on the Enceladus surface less than a tenth of an inch (under a few mm) from the surface.

Experimenting with amino acids

Amino acids are a key component of life on Earth. They are the building blocks of proteins. They can be created either by life or other kinds of chemistry not related to life. If scientists discovered amino acids on the ocean moons, especially those that life on Earth uses to help build proteins, it would be exciting.

On moons like Enceladus and Europa, amino acids could come up to the surface in a couple of different ways. One is by geysers, already known to exist on Enceladus and tentatively on Europa. The water would bring them up from the ocean below and eject them into space through cracks in the icy surface. Another way is by the slow churning of the ice crust itself, bringing them and other materials to the surface.

With that in mind, the researchers used amino acids in radiolysis experiments to represent possible biomolecules. Radiolysis is the dissociation of molecules by ionizing radiation. The researchers wanted to simulate conditions on the surfaces of the moons and see if the amino could tolerate them without being destroyed.

View larger. | Artist’s concept of a future lander on Europa. According to the new research, a lander may only have to dig or drill a few inches into the surface ice to find amino acids, if they exist there. Image via NASA/ JPL-Caltech.

Ice, dead bacteria and dust

The team combined various amino acids with ice chilled to about -321 Fahrenheit (-196 C) in sealed, airless vials. Then they bathed the vials in gamma rays at various doses. This simulated the deadly radiation coming from the sun, which hits the surfaces of the moons at full blast.

In addition, the team used amino acids in dead bacteria. The reasoning was there might be microbes living in the oceans right now, and when an organism dies, its remains could make it up to the surface where the amino acids it contained could be identified by a lander.

Lastly, the researchers also tested amino acids in ice mixed with silicate dust. This was the first-ever test of amino acids mixed with dust. Such dust could come from either meteorites or from within the moons themselves.

Degradation of amino acids

The radiolysis experiments allowed the researchers to estimate both the best locations and drilling depths in the ice to find 10% of the amino acids. They also determined the rates at which the amino acids would break down, called radiolysis constants.

This was the first testing of amino acids in ice to use both lower and higher radiation doses, and also to replicate surface conditions on the ocean moons. With lower radiation, the amino acids can be altered but are not destroyed. That can, however, still make it difficult to determine whether the amino acids came from life or abiotic (non-life related) chemical processes.

Interestingly, the results showed amino acids coming from microorganisms survived better than those mixed with dust. That’s good news for future missions going back to Enceladus and Europa. As Pavlov explained:

Slow rates of amino acid destruction in biological samples under Europa and Enceladus-like surface conditions bolster the case for future life-detection measurements by Europa and Enceladus lander missions. Our results indicate the rates of potential organic biomolecules’ degradation in silica-rich regions on both Europa and Enceladus are higher than in pure ice and, thus, possible future missions to Europa and Enceladus should be cautious in sampling silica-rich locations on both icy moons.

Earlier this year, another study suggested amino acids could even survive in Venus’ atmosphere, despite the high concentrations of sulfuric acid.

Bottom line: NASA scientists said we could find evidence of life on ocean moons like Europa and Enceladus by looking for amino acids just inches below their icy surfaces.

Source: Radiolytic Effects on Biological and Abiotic Amino Acids in Shallow Subsurface Ices on Europa and Enceladus

Via NASA

Read more: Did Europa’s carbon dioxide come from its ocean?

Read more: Amino acids on Venus? New study says it’s possible

The post Signs of life on ocean moons may be just below the surface first appeared on EarthSky.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/QdwHvst

Massive ancient volcanic eruption found in Aegean Sea

The JOIDES Resolution research ship cruises the southern Aegean Sea. Researchers discovered evidence of a previously unknown massive underwater volcanic eruption in this area from 520,000 years ago. Image via Thomas Ronge/ IODP/ The Conversation.

• Scientists have found evidence of a previously unknown volcanic eruption in the southern Aegean Sea from 520,000 years ago.
• Researchers drilled into the seabed, extracting cores with thick pumice layers that indicate a volcanic origin. Scientists have named this layer the Archaeos Tuff.
• The mostly underwater explosion was massive, about ten times larger than the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcanic eruption of January 22, 2022.

By Molly Colleen McCanta, University of Tennessee

Previously unknown volcanic eruption revealed

“Core on deck!”

For two months, whenever I heard that cry, I would run up to the deck of the JOIDES Resolution to watch the crew pull up a 30-foot (10-meter) cylindrical tube filled with layered, multicolored rock and sediment drilled from the seafloor beneath our ship.

In the winter of 2022, I spent two months cruising the south Aegean Sea on board the International Ocean Discovery Program’s JOIDES Resolution as part of IODP Expedition 398. My geologist colleagues and I used this former oil exploration ship to drill deep into the seafloor and reveal the volcanic history of the area off the coast of Santorini, Greece.

I’m a scientist who studies the chemistry of volcanic rocks. I use my expertise to correlate volcanic sediments to the eruption that caused them and to understand the conditions that magma experienced both at depth underneath a volcano and during an eruption.

Our expedition’s drilling of the seafloor revealed a massive but previously unknown volcanic eruption that took place more than 500,000 years ago. This discovery expands our understanding of the volcanic activity in the chain of volcanoes comprising the South Aegean Volcanic Arc. And this will allow for a more accurate hazard analysis of this region.

Building a more complete volcanic history

Archaeologists have long been fascinated with the late Bronze Age eruption of Santorini around 1600 BCE. This eruption is associated with the decline of the Minoan civilization on the nearby island of Crete. Geologists also have significant interest in the region, due to the volatility of the volcanic and seismic activity in this area. Especially because the area is home to about 15,000 residents and attracts around 2 million tourists per year.

Although there’s significant on-land documentation of the Santorini volcano, scientists know this record is incomplete. On land, erosion, vegetation and additional eruptive events often cover or obscure older volcanic deposits, resulting in a fragmentary history. The deep-sea drilling enabled by the IODP’s JOIDES Resolution gives researchers access to a geologic record rarely preserved on land.

How the sea preserves a volcanic eruption layer

Following a volcanic eruption, pyroclastic materials – pieces of rock and ash formed during the eruption – settle through the water column to collect on the seafloor. There, clays and biological material, such as the shells of tiny marine organisms, rain down continuously. As they do, they cap the volcanic rock deposits. This process preserves a record of an individual eruption as a single layer. Layers build with time, with each successive volcanic event creating a near-continuous chronologic record of the volcanic history of the region.

Expedition 398’s mission was to access this deep-sea record in order to document the extensive history of eruptions in each area of concentrated volcanic activity.

Researchers obtained cylindrical core samples from almost 3,000 feet – nearly a kilometer – within the seafloor. Image via Erick Bravo/ IODP/ The Conversation.

IODP Expedition 398

IODP Expedition 398 collected drill cores to better understand the volcanic history and recurrence interval of the Santorini, Christiana and Kolumbo volcanoes in this region. The JOIDES Resolution crew drilled 12 sites to a maximum depth of 2,950 feet (900 meters) below the seafloor. We recovered more than 11,000 feet (3,356 meters) of total core over 780 cores.

As technicians cut the core into 4 1/2-foot (1 1/2-meter) sections, scientists would gather to see the material. After bringing the cores to surface pressure, the team would split them lengthwise, photograph them, analyze them for physical properties such as magnetic susceptibility and describe the material. Core describers measure and record the geologic composition of each rocky unit contained within.

After the long, cylindrical cores are cut lengthwise, researchers pore over the layered sediment inside. Image via Erick Bravo/ IODP/ The Conversation.

As the geochemistry lab lead, I took small samples of multiple layers of volcanic rock and ash to dissolve into solution and analyze for their trace element composition. During an eruption, magma crystallizes and mixes with elements in the water and rock it comes into contact with. The resulting chemical changes in the magma are unique to the conditions of that particular eruption. So once I figure out the chemical composition of the deposit samples, I can fingerprint their volcanic origin.

Our discovery: The Archaeos Tuff

During the expedition, our group of researchers discovered a thick, white pumice layer at multiple sites in several different basins. Shipboard biostratigraphy dated each occurrence of the layer to the same age: between 510,000 and 530,000 years ago. Geochemical correlations suggested the composition was the same across drill holes as well.

Finding the same layer across these basins allows our research team to model how big the responsible eruption might have been. We used seismic data collected during the expedition to determine the bulk volume of the volcanic sediment is about 21 cubic miles (90 cubic kilometers). In addition, it had thicknesses up to 490 feet (150 meters) in some places. Plus, we determined this layer of volcanic rock was spread over 1,100 square miles (3,000 square kilometers) of this region in the southern Aegean Sea.

The crew drilled more than 780 cores from the seabed on the expedition. Image via Erick Bravo/ IODP/ The Conversation.

Uncovering a large volcanic eruption

Based on the Archaeos Tuff’s characteristics, we can understand the nature of the volcanic eruption that formed it. Its thickness and distribution over a wide area suggest the Archaeos Tuff is the result of a single, high-intensity eruption. The numerous vesicles, or tiny holes, in the rock indicate a release of a large amount of gas at the same time as the liquid magma. These little gas bubbles paint a picture of a powerful eruption in which a great deal of volatile gas was released quite quickly.

Yet despite its evident size and ferocity, this eruption did not correlate with any previously known on-land deposits or large eruptions. The relative lack of on-land material suggests a mainly submarine eruption. Once we knew what we were looking for, our team was able to match our newly discovered deep-sea layer of volcanic sediment to a few small, previously uncorrelated on-land deposits on Santorini, Christiana and Anafi islands. The presence of these deposits indicates some breach of the sea surface during the eruption, which again fits with our picture of an energetic eruption.

Putting the volcanic eruption size into context

Further study of the Archaeos Tuff’s composition and age confirmed the unique nature of the rock deposit left by this eruption. Based on the data we collected, our team believes the Archaeos Tuff is the result of an eruption six times bigger than the Bronze Age Minoan eruption, leaving behind rock deposits 30 times thicker. The presence of such a large volcanic deposit tells us that the South Aegean Volcanic Arc is more capable of producing large submarine volcanic eruptions than scientists previously recognized.

Another expedition member, Steffen Kutterolf of the GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research in Kiel, told Phys.org:

The newly discovered tuff deposit has a volume of more than 90 cubic kilometers and is up to 150 meters thick. This makes it ten times larger than the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcanic eruption of January 22, 2022.

Assessing volcanic hazards of the south Aegean Sea

Identifying the Archaeos Tuff expands what we know about volcanic processes in the south Aegean Sea. It suggests a greater propensity for hazardous submarine volcanism than previously realized. And officials need to reevaluate volcanic hazards to the surrounding population.

But researchers agree they do not expect another volcanic eruption of this magnitude in the near future.

Molly Colleen McCanta, Associate Professor of Petrology and Planetary Geoscience, University of Tennessee

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Bottom line: Researchers have found evidence in the layers of the seafloor of the Aegean Sea for a previously unknown massive volcanic eruption some 520,000 years ago.

The post Massive ancient volcanic eruption found in Aegean Sea first appeared on EarthSky.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/wz42i8d

The JOIDES Resolution research ship cruises the southern Aegean Sea. Researchers discovered evidence of a previously unknown massive underwater volcanic eruption in this area from 520,000 years ago. Image via Thomas Ronge/ IODP/ The Conversation.

• Scientists have found evidence of a previously unknown volcanic eruption in the southern Aegean Sea from 520,000 years ago.
• Researchers drilled into the seabed, extracting cores with thick pumice layers that indicate a volcanic origin. Scientists have named this layer the Archaeos Tuff.
• The mostly underwater explosion was massive, about ten times larger than the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcanic eruption of January 22, 2022.

By Molly Colleen McCanta, University of Tennessee

Previously unknown volcanic eruption revealed

“Core on deck!”

For two months, whenever I heard that cry, I would run up to the deck of the JOIDES Resolution to watch the crew pull up a 30-foot (10-meter) cylindrical tube filled with layered, multicolored rock and sediment drilled from the seafloor beneath our ship.

In the winter of 2022, I spent two months cruising the south Aegean Sea on board the International Ocean Discovery Program’s JOIDES Resolution as part of IODP Expedition 398. My geologist colleagues and I used this former oil exploration ship to drill deep into the seafloor and reveal the volcanic history of the area off the coast of Santorini, Greece.

I’m a scientist who studies the chemistry of volcanic rocks. I use my expertise to correlate volcanic sediments to the eruption that caused them and to understand the conditions that magma experienced both at depth underneath a volcano and during an eruption.

Our expedition’s drilling of the seafloor revealed a massive but previously unknown volcanic eruption that took place more than 500,000 years ago. This discovery expands our understanding of the volcanic activity in the chain of volcanoes comprising the South Aegean Volcanic Arc. And this will allow for a more accurate hazard analysis of this region.

Building a more complete volcanic history

Archaeologists have long been fascinated with the late Bronze Age eruption of Santorini around 1600 BCE. This eruption is associated with the decline of the Minoan civilization on the nearby island of Crete. Geologists also have significant interest in the region, due to the volatility of the volcanic and seismic activity in this area. Especially because the area is home to about 15,000 residents and attracts around 2 million tourists per year.

Although there’s significant on-land documentation of the Santorini volcano, scientists know this record is incomplete. On land, erosion, vegetation and additional eruptive events often cover or obscure older volcanic deposits, resulting in a fragmentary history. The deep-sea drilling enabled by the IODP’s JOIDES Resolution gives researchers access to a geologic record rarely preserved on land.

How the sea preserves a volcanic eruption layer

Following a volcanic eruption, pyroclastic materials – pieces of rock and ash formed during the eruption – settle through the water column to collect on the seafloor. There, clays and biological material, such as the shells of tiny marine organisms, rain down continuously. As they do, they cap the volcanic rock deposits. This process preserves a record of an individual eruption as a single layer. Layers build with time, with each successive volcanic event creating a near-continuous chronologic record of the volcanic history of the region.

Expedition 398’s mission was to access this deep-sea record in order to document the extensive history of eruptions in each area of concentrated volcanic activity.

Researchers obtained cylindrical core samples from almost 3,000 feet – nearly a kilometer – within the seafloor. Image via Erick Bravo/ IODP/ The Conversation.

IODP Expedition 398

IODP Expedition 398 collected drill cores to better understand the volcanic history and recurrence interval of the Santorini, Christiana and Kolumbo volcanoes in this region. The JOIDES Resolution crew drilled 12 sites to a maximum depth of 2,950 feet (900 meters) below the seafloor. We recovered more than 11,000 feet (3,356 meters) of total core over 780 cores.

As technicians cut the core into 4 1/2-foot (1 1/2-meter) sections, scientists would gather to see the material. After bringing the cores to surface pressure, the team would split them lengthwise, photograph them, analyze them for physical properties such as magnetic susceptibility and describe the material. Core describers measure and record the geologic composition of each rocky unit contained within.

After the long, cylindrical cores are cut lengthwise, researchers pore over the layered sediment inside. Image via Erick Bravo/ IODP/ The Conversation.

As the geochemistry lab lead, I took small samples of multiple layers of volcanic rock and ash to dissolve into solution and analyze for their trace element composition. During an eruption, magma crystallizes and mixes with elements in the water and rock it comes into contact with. The resulting chemical changes in the magma are unique to the conditions of that particular eruption. So once I figure out the chemical composition of the deposit samples, I can fingerprint their volcanic origin.

Our discovery: The Archaeos Tuff

During the expedition, our group of researchers discovered a thick, white pumice layer at multiple sites in several different basins. Shipboard biostratigraphy dated each occurrence of the layer to the same age: between 510,000 and 530,000 years ago. Geochemical correlations suggested the composition was the same across drill holes as well.

Finding the same layer across these basins allows our research team to model how big the responsible eruption might have been. We used seismic data collected during the expedition to determine the bulk volume of the volcanic sediment is about 21 cubic miles (90 cubic kilometers). In addition, it had thicknesses up to 490 feet (150 meters) in some places. Plus, we determined this layer of volcanic rock was spread over 1,100 square miles (3,000 square kilometers) of this region in the southern Aegean Sea.

The crew drilled more than 780 cores from the seabed on the expedition. Image via Erick Bravo/ IODP/ The Conversation.

Uncovering a large volcanic eruption

Based on the Archaeos Tuff’s characteristics, we can understand the nature of the volcanic eruption that formed it. Its thickness and distribution over a wide area suggest the Archaeos Tuff is the result of a single, high-intensity eruption. The numerous vesicles, or tiny holes, in the rock indicate a release of a large amount of gas at the same time as the liquid magma. These little gas bubbles paint a picture of a powerful eruption in which a great deal of volatile gas was released quite quickly.

Yet despite its evident size and ferocity, this eruption did not correlate with any previously known on-land deposits or large eruptions. The relative lack of on-land material suggests a mainly submarine eruption. Once we knew what we were looking for, our team was able to match our newly discovered deep-sea layer of volcanic sediment to a few small, previously uncorrelated on-land deposits on Santorini, Christiana and Anafi islands. The presence of these deposits indicates some breach of the sea surface during the eruption, which again fits with our picture of an energetic eruption.

Putting the volcanic eruption size into context

Further study of the Archaeos Tuff’s composition and age confirmed the unique nature of the rock deposit left by this eruption. Based on the data we collected, our team believes the Archaeos Tuff is the result of an eruption six times bigger than the Bronze Age Minoan eruption, leaving behind rock deposits 30 times thicker. The presence of such a large volcanic deposit tells us that the South Aegean Volcanic Arc is more capable of producing large submarine volcanic eruptions than scientists previously recognized.

Another expedition member, Steffen Kutterolf of the GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research in Kiel, told Phys.org:

The newly discovered tuff deposit has a volume of more than 90 cubic kilometers and is up to 150 meters thick. This makes it ten times larger than the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcanic eruption of January 22, 2022.

Assessing volcanic hazards of the south Aegean Sea

Identifying the Archaeos Tuff expands what we know about volcanic processes in the south Aegean Sea. It suggests a greater propensity for hazardous submarine volcanism than previously realized. And officials need to reevaluate volcanic hazards to the surrounding population.

But researchers agree they do not expect another volcanic eruption of this magnitude in the near future.

Molly Colleen McCanta, Associate Professor of Petrology and Planetary Geoscience, University of Tennessee

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Bottom line: Researchers have found evidence in the layers of the seafloor of the Aegean Sea for a previously unknown massive volcanic eruption some 520,000 years ago.

The post Massive ancient volcanic eruption found in Aegean Sea first appeared on EarthSky.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/wz42i8d

Lifeform of the week: Scorpions

If you feel fear when looking at a scorpion, it might be due to its strong pincers and venomous stinger. Or it might be because of the creature’s eight legs. That’s right, scorpions are arachnids, like spiders. However, they are very interesting animals. Did you know they’re fluorescent? In addition, their venom has anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antibiotic properties that may help treat diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, cancers and more.

Scorpions are ancient

Scorpions may be dangerous, but let’s look closer and see what we can learn from them. They existed long before the first dinosaurs.

Scorpions may be the oldest land animals still living today. The fossil record suggests that ancient scorpions were among the first marine animals to venture onto land, which happened about 420 million years ago during the Silurian Period. At that time, scorpions measured about 10 feet (3 meters).

To give you an idea of their antiquity, modern humans (Homo sapiens) began to inhabit the Earth only 200,000 years ago. That is, we are approximately 2,100 times younger than scorpions.

Scorpions existed long before the first dinosaurs. They are ancient beings. Image via Leon Pauleikhoff/ Unsplash.

Read more: Scorpius the Scorpion is a summertime delight

Scorpions are arachnids

These creatures are not insects, but arachnids, like spiders, mites and ticks. All arachnids have eight legs, while insects have six legs.

Scorpions are arthropods that are part of the chelicerates. These animals have chelicerae; that is, they have “jaws.” They differ from other arthropods in part because they do not have antennae.

In addition to the eight legs and two chelicerae, scorpions also have two pedipalps, which are highly developed “pincers” that they use to detect and hold prey. As you can see in the images, the jaws of the scorpions are much smaller than those of spiders. Meanwhile, the pincers of scorpions are much larger.

Scorpions have two simple eyes on the top of their heads and two to five pairs of eyes (depending on the species) on the sides of their heads. However, scorpions cannot see very well, although the sensitivity of their eyes is among the highest of all arthropods. Thus, when hunting, they locate their prey through the smell and vibrations of the terrain.

These creatures are not insects, but arachnids. They have 8 legs, 2 jaws, 2 pincers and simple eyes. Image via Sam H/ Unsplash.

They have an adaptation power

Scorpions adapt easily to any climate. You can find scorpions in the desert, savannah, forest or jungle. The only place on the planet they do not inhabit is Antarctica, because it’s too cold. In addition, they live in burrows and nooks, and they like to bury themselves for camouflage. Therefore, they prefer to live in places where there is soil or sand and not in compact or frozen grounds.

There are about 2,000 species of scorpions, so their size and color vary greatly. The smallest scorpion measures 0.35 inches (9 millimeters), while the largest reaches 9 inches (23 centimeters) and weighs 2 ounces (56 grams).

Scorpions eat almost anything and can go an entire year without eating. They are nocturnal hunters and feed mainly on insects, spiders and other arthropods, but some eat larvae and earthworms. Larger scorpions can eat larger prey, such as small lizards or rodents.

Additionally, they can only ingest their food in liquid form, so part of the digestion is done outside the body. Scorpions hold their prey with their jaws and pincers and pour enzymes or digestive juices over it so the animal breaks down. Then they absorb it into their small mouths.

Many scorpions spend 92 to 97% of their lives immobile in burrows. Because they expend little energy, they can survive on few nutrients. They usually feed every two weeks, but in some cases, they go six to 12 months without eating anything. They can live an entire year eating a single annual insect.

Scorpions adapt easily to any climate, eat almost anything and can go an entire year without eating. Image via Fabio Benevides/ Pexels.

A fluorescent secret

Surprise! Adult scorpions glow in ultraviolet light. This is due to a thin, transparent external film that covers their exoskeleton, called the cuticle. This layer contains a fluorescent protein that gives them this extraordinary ability.

Scientists aren’t entirely sure what evolutionary advantages bioluminescence offers for scorpions. But theories include helping to protect them from sunlight, finding mates in the dark, deterring predators or protecting them from parasites.

In any case, this peculiarity makes it much easier to find scorpions. And it helps researchers who study them to find them more easily.

When a scorpion sheds its skin, its new cuticle is initially soft and does not contain the substance that causes fluorescence. But once this hard exoskeleton is formed, it is impressively durable, as scorpion fossils often still glow under ultraviolet light even millions of years later.

View at EarthSky Community Photos.| Steve Price from Utah shared this image of a scorpion on June 30, 2023. Thank you! Scorpions glow in ultraviolet light thanks to a film that covers their exoskeleton and contains a fluorescent protein that gives them this extraordinary ability. See more photos here.

Scorpions decide when to use their venom

Absolutely all scorpions are venomous. The venom can include different toxins depending on the species, making it diverse and complex. Of the 2,000 known species, only about 30 or 40 are capable of killing humans. This figure represents a serious threat to human life in some parts of the world where medical treatment is difficult to access.

There are even newborn scorpions that already have venom. So don’t underestimate their danger. Scorpions use their venom both to subdue their prey and to protect themselves from predators, such as centipedes, birds, lizards and small mammals.

The toxins from the venom attack the victim’s nerve cells, causing paralysis and death. And did you know scorpions have self-control? Indeed, these animals decide when and how much venom to release with a sting. Typically, scorpions kill their prey with their pincers, resorting to poison only when necessary.

Absolutely all scorpions are venomous. Even newborn scorpions already have venom. They decide when and how much venom to release. Image via Aristos Aristidou/ Unsplash.

Its poison heals and kills

The curious thing about the poison is it can kill or save lives. Scientists have revealed many useful compounds hiding in scorpions’ venom, and they hope to discover many more.

The venom of some species contains antimicrobials that can be effective against many bacteria and fungi, as well as serving as a treatment for malaria. It also contains anti-inflammatory properties that could make it an effective treatment for arthritis. Other compounds have shown to be promising as immunosuppressants for the treatment of autoimmune disorders.

Its venom might even be able to cure brain cancer. There is a barrier that protects the brain and makes it difficult for drugs to reach the brain and treat neurological diseases and tumors. But, do you remember that scorpion venom affects nerve cells? Well, chlorotoxin is a protein in scorpion venom capable of overcoming the brain barrier. So it can transport drugs there.

Scientists have revealed compounds hiding in scorpions’ venom that can treat many diseases. Image via Sifaw/ iNaturalist (CC BY-NC 4.0).

Scorpions can dance

Scorpions dance before mating. If the female shows interest in the male, they begin by confronting each other and then grabbing each other’s pincers. They move in circles or back and forth with their tails raised above their backs. The dance can last from minutes to hours.

At the end of the dance, the male deposits a type of blister with the sperm, called the spermatophore, on the ground and maneuvers with the female so that her genital area is over the spermatophore. When slight pressure is produced on it, the sperm mass is released.

Once mating is complete, the female often devours her partner, as so much exercise whets her appetite …

If the female shows interest in the male, they confront each other, then grab each other’s pincers and mate. The female often devours her partner after mating. Image via Centaur/ iNaturalist (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

Are scorpions good parents?

Females can have up to 100 young in a single birth. Scorpion babies stay with their mother for two years in many species. Babies live on their mother’s back and become independent a few days after their first shedding.

Scorpions are viviparous, meaning they give birth to live young instead of laying external eggs. Babies look like adult scorpions, but they are much smaller and have a soft, white body. When they are born, they quickly climb onto their mother’s back, who fiercely defends them until it is time for them to move on.

However, a hungry mother scorpion will eat her own babies if resources are scarce.

Most arthropods have relatively short lifespans compared to other animals. Many insects live only weeks or months, but scorpions are among the longest-lived arthropods. In the wild, they usually live two to 10 years, but in captivity they have lived up to 25 years.

Females can have up to 100 young in a single birth. The babies live on their mother’s back, have a light color and are soft. Image via Mhedin/ iNaturalist (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0).

Bottom line: Scorpions are arachnids that have strong pincers and venomous stingers. All species are venomous, but their venom can also save lives.

Read more: The praying mantis is a predator: Lifeform of the week

Read more: Colorful iguanas are our lifeform of the week

The post Lifeform of the week: Scorpions first appeared on EarthSky.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/Jjx4LSp

If you feel fear when looking at a scorpion, it might be due to its strong pincers and venomous stinger. Or it might be because of the creature’s eight legs. That’s right, scorpions are arachnids, like spiders. However, they are very interesting animals. Did you know they’re fluorescent? In addition, their venom has anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antibiotic properties that may help treat diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, cancers and more.

Scorpions are ancient

Scorpions may be dangerous, but let’s look closer and see what we can learn from them. They existed long before the first dinosaurs.

Scorpions may be the oldest land animals still living today. The fossil record suggests that ancient scorpions were among the first marine animals to venture onto land, which happened about 420 million years ago during the Silurian Period. At that time, scorpions measured about 10 feet (3 meters).

To give you an idea of their antiquity, modern humans (Homo sapiens) began to inhabit the Earth only 200,000 years ago. That is, we are approximately 2,100 times younger than scorpions.

Scorpions existed long before the first dinosaurs. They are ancient beings. Image via Leon Pauleikhoff/ Unsplash.

Read more: Scorpius the Scorpion is a summertime delight

Scorpions are arachnids

These creatures are not insects, but arachnids, like spiders, mites and ticks. All arachnids have eight legs, while insects have six legs.

Scorpions are arthropods that are part of the chelicerates. These animals have chelicerae; that is, they have “jaws.” They differ from other arthropods in part because they do not have antennae.

In addition to the eight legs and two chelicerae, scorpions also have two pedipalps, which are highly developed “pincers” that they use to detect and hold prey. As you can see in the images, the jaws of the scorpions are much smaller than those of spiders. Meanwhile, the pincers of scorpions are much larger.

Scorpions have two simple eyes on the top of their heads and two to five pairs of eyes (depending on the species) on the sides of their heads. However, scorpions cannot see very well, although the sensitivity of their eyes is among the highest of all arthropods. Thus, when hunting, they locate their prey through the smell and vibrations of the terrain.

These creatures are not insects, but arachnids. They have 8 legs, 2 jaws, 2 pincers and simple eyes. Image via Sam H/ Unsplash.

They have an adaptation power

Scorpions adapt easily to any climate. You can find scorpions in the desert, savannah, forest or jungle. The only place on the planet they do not inhabit is Antarctica, because it’s too cold. In addition, they live in burrows and nooks, and they like to bury themselves for camouflage. Therefore, they prefer to live in places where there is soil or sand and not in compact or frozen grounds.

There are about 2,000 species of scorpions, so their size and color vary greatly. The smallest scorpion measures 0.35 inches (9 millimeters), while the largest reaches 9 inches (23 centimeters) and weighs 2 ounces (56 grams).

Scorpions eat almost anything and can go an entire year without eating. They are nocturnal hunters and feed mainly on insects, spiders and other arthropods, but some eat larvae and earthworms. Larger scorpions can eat larger prey, such as small lizards or rodents.

Additionally, they can only ingest their food in liquid form, so part of the digestion is done outside the body. Scorpions hold their prey with their jaws and pincers and pour enzymes or digestive juices over it so the animal breaks down. Then they absorb it into their small mouths.

Many scorpions spend 92 to 97% of their lives immobile in burrows. Because they expend little energy, they can survive on few nutrients. They usually feed every two weeks, but in some cases, they go six to 12 months without eating anything. They can live an entire year eating a single annual insect.

Scorpions adapt easily to any climate, eat almost anything and can go an entire year without eating. Image via Fabio Benevides/ Pexels.

A fluorescent secret

Surprise! Adult scorpions glow in ultraviolet light. This is due to a thin, transparent external film that covers their exoskeleton, called the cuticle. This layer contains a fluorescent protein that gives them this extraordinary ability.

Scientists aren’t entirely sure what evolutionary advantages bioluminescence offers for scorpions. But theories include helping to protect them from sunlight, finding mates in the dark, deterring predators or protecting them from parasites.

In any case, this peculiarity makes it much easier to find scorpions. And it helps researchers who study them to find them more easily.

When a scorpion sheds its skin, its new cuticle is initially soft and does not contain the substance that causes fluorescence. But once this hard exoskeleton is formed, it is impressively durable, as scorpion fossils often still glow under ultraviolet light even millions of years later.

View at EarthSky Community Photos.| Steve Price from Utah shared this image of a scorpion on June 30, 2023. Thank you! Scorpions glow in ultraviolet light thanks to a film that covers their exoskeleton and contains a fluorescent protein that gives them this extraordinary ability. See more photos here.

Scorpions decide when to use their venom

Absolutely all scorpions are venomous. The venom can include different toxins depending on the species, making it diverse and complex. Of the 2,000 known species, only about 30 or 40 are capable of killing humans. This figure represents a serious threat to human life in some parts of the world where medical treatment is difficult to access.

There are even newborn scorpions that already have venom. So don’t underestimate their danger. Scorpions use their venom both to subdue their prey and to protect themselves from predators, such as centipedes, birds, lizards and small mammals.

The toxins from the venom attack the victim’s nerve cells, causing paralysis and death. And did you know scorpions have self-control? Indeed, these animals decide when and how much venom to release with a sting. Typically, scorpions kill their prey with their pincers, resorting to poison only when necessary.

Absolutely all scorpions are venomous. Even newborn scorpions already have venom. They decide when and how much venom to release. Image via Aristos Aristidou/ Unsplash.

Its poison heals and kills

The curious thing about the poison is it can kill or save lives. Scientists have revealed many useful compounds hiding in scorpions’ venom, and they hope to discover many more.

The venom of some species contains antimicrobials that can be effective against many bacteria and fungi, as well as serving as a treatment for malaria. It also contains anti-inflammatory properties that could make it an effective treatment for arthritis. Other compounds have shown to be promising as immunosuppressants for the treatment of autoimmune disorders.

Its venom might even be able to cure brain cancer. There is a barrier that protects the brain and makes it difficult for drugs to reach the brain and treat neurological diseases and tumors. But, do you remember that scorpion venom affects nerve cells? Well, chlorotoxin is a protein in scorpion venom capable of overcoming the brain barrier. So it can transport drugs there.

Scientists have revealed compounds hiding in scorpions’ venom that can treat many diseases. Image via Sifaw/ iNaturalist (CC BY-NC 4.0).

Scorpions can dance

Scorpions dance before mating. If the female shows interest in the male, they begin by confronting each other and then grabbing each other’s pincers. They move in circles or back and forth with their tails raised above their backs. The dance can last from minutes to hours.

At the end of the dance, the male deposits a type of blister with the sperm, called the spermatophore, on the ground and maneuvers with the female so that her genital area is over the spermatophore. When slight pressure is produced on it, the sperm mass is released.

Once mating is complete, the female often devours her partner, as so much exercise whets her appetite …

If the female shows interest in the male, they confront each other, then grab each other’s pincers and mate. The female often devours her partner after mating. Image via Centaur/ iNaturalist (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

Are scorpions good parents?

Females can have up to 100 young in a single birth. Scorpion babies stay with their mother for two years in many species. Babies live on their mother’s back and become independent a few days after their first shedding.

Scorpions are viviparous, meaning they give birth to live young instead of laying external eggs. Babies look like adult scorpions, but they are much smaller and have a soft, white body. When they are born, they quickly climb onto their mother’s back, who fiercely defends them until it is time for them to move on.

However, a hungry mother scorpion will eat her own babies if resources are scarce.

Most arthropods have relatively short lifespans compared to other animals. Many insects live only weeks or months, but scorpions are among the longest-lived arthropods. In the wild, they usually live two to 10 years, but in captivity they have lived up to 25 years.

Females can have up to 100 young in a single birth. The babies live on their mother’s back, have a light color and are soft. Image via Mhedin/ iNaturalist (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0).

Bottom line: Scorpions are arachnids that have strong pincers and venomous stingers. All species are venomous, but their venom can also save lives.

Read more: The praying mantis is a predator: Lifeform of the week

Read more: Colorful iguanas are our lifeform of the week

The post Lifeform of the week: Scorpions first appeared on EarthSky.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/Jjx4LSp

Summer Olympics: 128 years of history in 5 charts

Test your knowledge of the Winter and Summer Olympics with this history quiz!

• The modern Olympics began in 1896. Now every two years athletes compete in the Winter and then the Summer Olympics.
• Check out the charts below to learn more about how the Olympics have changed over time. Also notice what hasn’t changed, like the age of many Olympians and some of the sports.
• Don’t miss the video above so you can test your knowledge of Olympic trivia. Can you get at least half the questions right?

By Matt Garrow, The Conversation and Niall Seewang, The Conversation

The modern Olympic Games offer a window into almost 130 years of social and cultural change.

They reflect the fall of nations, war, the shifting winds of culture and the way people engage with sports, fitness and competition.

We’ve taken data from every modern summer Olympics to see which sports have stood the test of time, the changing age of athletes, and whether hosting really gives your team an advantage.

Paris hosts the Summer Olympics from July 26 to August 11, 2024. Image via Luca Dugaro/ Unsplash.

Summer Olympics over the years

The Olympics have evolved dramatically over the years, gaining new sports and dropping others.

The 2020 Tokyo Olympics had the largest number of sports of any games, with 33 sports (and 339 medal events). While the first modern games in Athens in 1896 only had nine.

Some sports that are no longer in the Olympics include ballooning, fishing, firefighting, alpinism (mountain climbing, judged by the mountains climbed in the four years between games), kaatsen (a type of handball) and bicycle polo.

New sports that entered recently are surfing, sports climbing and, in the 2024 Paris games, breaking (known by some as breakdancing).

---

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Olympics are a young person’s game

On average, since the start of the modern Olympics in 1896, about 2/3 of athletes who competed were 20 to 30 years old. Most athletes compete in their first games between the ages of 20 to 25. Very few athletes compete over the age of 40: fewer than 4% of all athletes.

Age – and death! – didn’t stop John Quincy Ward, however. Though he died in 1910 at the age of 79, his artwork competed at the 1928 Olympics in the (now defunct) sculpture event. He didn’t win. Ward is one of only 24 athletes who competed posthumously. They competed mostly in the arts, though a few were part of the alpinism event and died while climbing mountains.

---

---

While the vast majority of athletes only compete in one or two Olympics, almost 900 people attended five or more games. Incredibly, three athletes have competed in nine games. And one athlete, equestrian athlete Ian Millar, has competed in 10 Olympics.

The most competitive events in the Summer Olympics

Athletics events (track and field) attract the most competitors through the history of the modern Olympics.

However, digging deeper into the data reveals some countries have cumulatively sent more athletes in different sports:

• Argentina, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Malaysia and New Zealand sent more hockey players than any other sport
• Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, Mongolia, Syria and Turkey mostly send wrestling athletes
• Around 9,385 footballers from around the world have competed at the games. But almost 20% (1,632) of those came from just 18 nations, including Brazil (341), Korea (209) and Egypt (195).

---

---

Home team advantage

Hosting the Olympics seems to deliver a hometown advantage.

The chart below shows the top 12 countries by medal tally and how they stacked up when they hosted the Olympics. Almost all have a meaningful boost, either making or breaking their top tallies during home games.

There is one unique standout, though. Hungary has become a powerhouse in picking up medals. Astounding, considering it hasn’t hosted an Olympics.

---

---

France is about to embark on its third Olympic games, sharing the silver medal for number of games hosted with the U.K. Gold goes to the U.S., which has hosted four times. It remains to be seen if France can live up to their incredible medal success in the 1900 Paris games, but the data show that 2024 is their best hope.

Australia’s medal tally is on the rise

Australia has hosted two Olympic Games – Melbourne in 1956 and Sydney in 2000 – and its medal numbers shot up in the games before and after. However, Australia had its best gold medal run in the 2020 Tokyo and 2004 Athens games.

Medals can bring big money to the athletes who win them. Since 2019, the Australian Olympic Committee (AOC) pays A$20,000, $15,000 and $10,000 for gold, silver and bronze medals, respectively. This is likely to go up as Australia prepares to host the 2032 games.

---

---

Matt Garrow, Editorial Web Developer, The Conversation and Niall Seewang, Sport + Society Editor, The Conversation

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Bottom line: Paris hosts the Summer Olympics from July 26 to August 11, 2024. See a history of the sports and athletes in five charts here.

Read more: Olympic success: Is it genes or training?

The post Summer Olympics: 128 years of history in 5 charts first appeared on EarthSky.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/QrgelWa

Test your knowledge of the Winter and Summer Olympics with this history quiz!

• The modern Olympics began in 1896. Now every two years athletes compete in the Winter and then the Summer Olympics.
• Check out the charts below to learn more about how the Olympics have changed over time. Also notice what hasn’t changed, like the age of many Olympians and some of the sports.
• Don’t miss the video above so you can test your knowledge of Olympic trivia. Can you get at least half the questions right?

By Matt Garrow, The Conversation and Niall Seewang, The Conversation

The modern Olympic Games offer a window into almost 130 years of social and cultural change.

They reflect the fall of nations, war, the shifting winds of culture and the way people engage with sports, fitness and competition.

We’ve taken data from every modern summer Olympics to see which sports have stood the test of time, the changing age of athletes, and whether hosting really gives your team an advantage.

Paris hosts the Summer Olympics from July 26 to August 11, 2024. Image via Luca Dugaro/ Unsplash.

Summer Olympics over the years

The Olympics have evolved dramatically over the years, gaining new sports and dropping others.

The 2020 Tokyo Olympics had the largest number of sports of any games, with 33 sports (and 339 medal events). While the first modern games in Athens in 1896 only had nine.

Some sports that are no longer in the Olympics include ballooning, fishing, firefighting, alpinism (mountain climbing, judged by the mountains climbed in the four years between games), kaatsen (a type of handball) and bicycle polo.

New sports that entered recently are surfing, sports climbing and, in the 2024 Paris games, breaking (known by some as breakdancing).

---

---

Olympics are a young person’s game

On average, since the start of the modern Olympics in 1896, about 2/3 of athletes who competed were 20 to 30 years old. Most athletes compete in their first games between the ages of 20 to 25. Very few athletes compete over the age of 40: fewer than 4% of all athletes.

Age – and death! – didn’t stop John Quincy Ward, however. Though he died in 1910 at the age of 79, his artwork competed at the 1928 Olympics in the (now defunct) sculpture event. He didn’t win. Ward is one of only 24 athletes who competed posthumously. They competed mostly in the arts, though a few were part of the alpinism event and died while climbing mountains.

---

---

While the vast majority of athletes only compete in one or two Olympics, almost 900 people attended five or more games. Incredibly, three athletes have competed in nine games. And one athlete, equestrian athlete Ian Millar, has competed in 10 Olympics.

The most competitive events in the Summer Olympics

Athletics events (track and field) attract the most competitors through the history of the modern Olympics.

However, digging deeper into the data reveals some countries have cumulatively sent more athletes in different sports:

• Argentina, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Malaysia and New Zealand sent more hockey players than any other sport
• Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, Mongolia, Syria and Turkey mostly send wrestling athletes
• Around 9,385 footballers from around the world have competed at the games. But almost 20% (1,632) of those came from just 18 nations, including Brazil (341), Korea (209) and Egypt (195).

---

---

Home team advantage

Hosting the Olympics seems to deliver a hometown advantage.

The chart below shows the top 12 countries by medal tally and how they stacked up when they hosted the Olympics. Almost all have a meaningful boost, either making or breaking their top tallies during home games.

There is one unique standout, though. Hungary has become a powerhouse in picking up medals. Astounding, considering it hasn’t hosted an Olympics.

---

---

France is about to embark on its third Olympic games, sharing the silver medal for number of games hosted with the U.K. Gold goes to the U.S., which has hosted four times. It remains to be seen if France can live up to their incredible medal success in the 1900 Paris games, but the data show that 2024 is their best hope.

Australia’s medal tally is on the rise

Australia has hosted two Olympic Games – Melbourne in 1956 and Sydney in 2000 – and its medal numbers shot up in the games before and after. However, Australia had its best gold medal run in the 2020 Tokyo and 2004 Athens games.

Medals can bring big money to the athletes who win them. Since 2019, the Australian Olympic Committee (AOC) pays A$20,000, $15,000 and $10,000 for gold, silver and bronze medals, respectively. This is likely to go up as Australia prepares to host the 2032 games.

---

---

Matt Garrow, Editorial Web Developer, The Conversation and Niall Seewang, Sport + Society Editor, The Conversation

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Bottom line: Paris hosts the Summer Olympics from July 26 to August 11, 2024. See a history of the sports and athletes in five charts here.

Read more: Olympic success: Is it genes or training?

The post Summer Olympics: 128 years of history in 5 charts first appeared on EarthSky.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/QrgelWa