This desert moss could grow on Mars, no greenhouse needed

View larger. | The desert moss is Syntrichia caninervis, also known as steppe screw moss. Researchers in China said this moss can survive extreme Martian conditions and could be be used by future astronauts. Image via Sheri Hagwood/ Wikimedia Commons (public domain).

• Scientists in China said a desert moss commonly found on Earth could survive and even thrive on Mars.
• The moss, Syntrichia caninervis – also known as steppe screw moss – survived prolonged periods of freezing conditions and radiation in lab tests and easily regenerated itself.
• While not good as a food source, astronauts could use the moss to help grow other plants on Mars. And future astronauts could even plant it right in the Martian soil without needing a greenhouse.

Mars’ surface is extremely dry, cold and subject to strong radiation from the sun. It’s so harsh that even lowly lichens and similar organisms would have a difficult time surviving there. But on June 30, 2024, The Guardian said scientists in China have found a species of moss that can withstand Mars-like conditions. That moss – called Syntrichia caninervis – could not only survive, but future astronauts could grow it right in the Martian ground without needing a greenhouse. The moss could also help other plants grow as well.

The researchers published their peer-reviewed findings in the journal The Innovation on July 1, 2024.

A humble desert moss

Syntrichia caninervis is a desert moss that lives all over the world. It’s common in extreme desert environments. It can be found in China, Mongolia, Siberia, central and southwestern Asia, Europe, North America and even Antarctica.

Syntrichia caninervis is also known as steppe screw moss. Instead of roots, it uses tiny hairs to collect moisture from dew, fog, snow and rain. It has a well-known ability for surviving drought conditions.

A desert moss that can survive on Mars

If astronauts ever do stay on Mars and build habitats, then they’ll need to be able to grow their own plants. Typically, they would use greenhouses. But the Chinese scientists wanted to see if any plants could grow right in the Martian soil with no greenhouse needed.

With Mars’ extreme conditions, only the most primitive kinds of plants might be able to survive, such as moss. With this in mind, the researchers used the desert moss Syntrichia caninervis. The new study was the first to use whole plants for such Mars experiments. And unlike most other experiments, it focused on growing the plants directly in simulated Martian soil instead of in greenhouses.

Not a good food source, but still useful

So, would it actually work on Mars? The desert moss itself wouldn’t be good as food, but it has other uses. Stuart McDaniel is a moss expert at the University of Florida. He told The Guardian:

Cultivating terrestrial plants is an important part of any long-term space mission because plants efficiently turn carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and carbohydrates, essentially the air and food that humans need to survive. Desert moss is not edible, but it could provide other important services in space.

Research scientist Agata Zupanska at the SETI Institute added:

Otherwise, moss is not tasty and does not make a great addition to the salad.

And so while the moss itself isn’t edible, it could be used to help other plants grow, the researchers said.

View larger. | An astronaut examines rocks on Mars in this artist’s concept. While the desert moss isn’t edible, future astronauts could use it to help grow other plants. Image via NASA/ Wikimedia Commons (public domain).

Survive and thrive

The Syntrichia caninervis moss not only survived in the experiments, it basically thrived. It quickly regenerated after being almost completely dehydrated. Incredibly, it was able to regenerate after five years at -112 Fahrenheit (-80 C) and 30 days at -320 F (-196 C).

In addition, the moss survived doses of gamma-ray radiation of up to 500 Gy (units of ionizing radiation). For humans, the lethal dose is about 50 Gy.

That’s good news, but the researchers wanted to simulate the Martian conditions even more precisely. They replicated the pressures, temperatures, gases and UV radiation on Mars. Even then, the moss survived and continued to regenerate normally, after seven days. Notably, samples of moss that were dried out before the experiments did better than the other samples. McDaniel said:

This paper is exciting because it shows that desert moss survives short exposures to some of the stresses that are likely to be found on a trip to Mars, including very high levels of radiation, very cold temperatures, and very low oxygen levels.

And as the paper noted:

Looking to the future, we expect that this promising moss could be brought to Mars or the moon to further test the possibility of plant colonization and growth in outer space.

More work to be done

Being able to grow moss on Mars is an exciting possibility, but the researchers caution that this work is still preliminary, and the current tests had limitations. As McDaniel said in The Guardian:

These experiments represent an important first step, but they do not show that the moss could be a significant source of oxygen under Martian conditions, nor do they show that the desert moss could reproduce and proliferate in the Martian context.

Zupanska added:

In my opinion, we are getting close to growing plants in extraterrestrial greenhouses, and moss certainly has a place in those. Implying that moss, or any other pioneering species, is ready to terraform Mars, or any other outer planet, is an exaggeration.

Also, while replicating Martian conditions overall, the tests didn’t use simulated Martian soil, as Wieger Wamelink at Wageningen University in The Netherlands noted:

The mosses were treated under Mars circumstances for a maximum of several days and then regrown under Earth conditions on sand. This, of course, does not show at all that they can grow under Mars conditions.

Growing plants on Mars … someday

So while there is still much work to be done, these tests are an important step toward one day being able to grow plants on Mars for human habitation. Edward Guinan at Villanova University in Pennsylvania agreed with that assessment, saying:

This extremotolerant moss could be a promising pioneer plant for Mars colonization. We have a long way to go. But this lowly desert moss offers hope for making small portions of Mars habitable for humankind in the future.

Bottom line: Scientists in China say a desert moss commonly found on Earth can survive the harsh conditions of Mars. Future astronauts could use it to grow other plants.

Source: The extremotolerant desert moss Syntrichia caninervis is a promising pioneer plant for colonizing extraterrestrial environments

Via The Guardian

Read more: Want to find life on Mars? Look deep underground

Read more: NASA unveils Mars habitat on Earth for a yearlong test

The post This desert moss could grow on Mars, no greenhouse needed first appeared on EarthSky.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/ARG3KMc

View larger. | The desert moss is Syntrichia caninervis, also known as steppe screw moss. Researchers in China said this moss can survive extreme Martian conditions and could be be used by future astronauts. Image via Sheri Hagwood/ Wikimedia Commons (public domain).

• Scientists in China said a desert moss commonly found on Earth could survive and even thrive on Mars.
• The moss, Syntrichia caninervis – also known as steppe screw moss – survived prolonged periods of freezing conditions and radiation in lab tests and easily regenerated itself.
• While not good as a food source, astronauts could use the moss to help grow other plants on Mars. And future astronauts could even plant it right in the Martian soil without needing a greenhouse.

Mars’ surface is extremely dry, cold and subject to strong radiation from the sun. It’s so harsh that even lowly lichens and similar organisms would have a difficult time surviving there. But on June 30, 2024, The Guardian said scientists in China have found a species of moss that can withstand Mars-like conditions. That moss – called Syntrichia caninervis – could not only survive, but future astronauts could grow it right in the Martian ground without needing a greenhouse. The moss could also help other plants grow as well.

The researchers published their peer-reviewed findings in the journal The Innovation on July 1, 2024.

A humble desert moss

Syntrichia caninervis is a desert moss that lives all over the world. It’s common in extreme desert environments. It can be found in China, Mongolia, Siberia, central and southwestern Asia, Europe, North America and even Antarctica.

Syntrichia caninervis is also known as steppe screw moss. Instead of roots, it uses tiny hairs to collect moisture from dew, fog, snow and rain. It has a well-known ability for surviving drought conditions.

A desert moss that can survive on Mars

If astronauts ever do stay on Mars and build habitats, then they’ll need to be able to grow their own plants. Typically, they would use greenhouses. But the Chinese scientists wanted to see if any plants could grow right in the Martian soil with no greenhouse needed.

With Mars’ extreme conditions, only the most primitive kinds of plants might be able to survive, such as moss. With this in mind, the researchers used the desert moss Syntrichia caninervis. The new study was the first to use whole plants for such Mars experiments. And unlike most other experiments, it focused on growing the plants directly in simulated Martian soil instead of in greenhouses.

Not a good food source, but still useful

So, would it actually work on Mars? The desert moss itself wouldn’t be good as food, but it has other uses. Stuart McDaniel is a moss expert at the University of Florida. He told The Guardian:

Cultivating terrestrial plants is an important part of any long-term space mission because plants efficiently turn carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and carbohydrates, essentially the air and food that humans need to survive. Desert moss is not edible, but it could provide other important services in space.

Research scientist Agata Zupanska at the SETI Institute added:

Otherwise, moss is not tasty and does not make a great addition to the salad.

And so while the moss itself isn’t edible, it could be used to help other plants grow, the researchers said.

View larger. | An astronaut examines rocks on Mars in this artist’s concept. While the desert moss isn’t edible, future astronauts could use it to help grow other plants. Image via NASA/ Wikimedia Commons (public domain).

Survive and thrive

The Syntrichia caninervis moss not only survived in the experiments, it basically thrived. It quickly regenerated after being almost completely dehydrated. Incredibly, it was able to regenerate after five years at -112 Fahrenheit (-80 C) and 30 days at -320 F (-196 C).

In addition, the moss survived doses of gamma-ray radiation of up to 500 Gy (units of ionizing radiation). For humans, the lethal dose is about 50 Gy.

That’s good news, but the researchers wanted to simulate the Martian conditions even more precisely. They replicated the pressures, temperatures, gases and UV radiation on Mars. Even then, the moss survived and continued to regenerate normally, after seven days. Notably, samples of moss that were dried out before the experiments did better than the other samples. McDaniel said:

This paper is exciting because it shows that desert moss survives short exposures to some of the stresses that are likely to be found on a trip to Mars, including very high levels of radiation, very cold temperatures, and very low oxygen levels.

And as the paper noted:

Looking to the future, we expect that this promising moss could be brought to Mars or the moon to further test the possibility of plant colonization and growth in outer space.

More work to be done

Being able to grow moss on Mars is an exciting possibility, but the researchers caution that this work is still preliminary, and the current tests had limitations. As McDaniel said in The Guardian:

These experiments represent an important first step, but they do not show that the moss could be a significant source of oxygen under Martian conditions, nor do they show that the desert moss could reproduce and proliferate in the Martian context.

Zupanska added:

In my opinion, we are getting close to growing plants in extraterrestrial greenhouses, and moss certainly has a place in those. Implying that moss, or any other pioneering species, is ready to terraform Mars, or any other outer planet, is an exaggeration.

Also, while replicating Martian conditions overall, the tests didn’t use simulated Martian soil, as Wieger Wamelink at Wageningen University in The Netherlands noted:

The mosses were treated under Mars circumstances for a maximum of several days and then regrown under Earth conditions on sand. This, of course, does not show at all that they can grow under Mars conditions.

Growing plants on Mars … someday

So while there is still much work to be done, these tests are an important step toward one day being able to grow plants on Mars for human habitation. Edward Guinan at Villanova University in Pennsylvania agreed with that assessment, saying:

This extremotolerant moss could be a promising pioneer plant for Mars colonization. We have a long way to go. But this lowly desert moss offers hope for making small portions of Mars habitable for humankind in the future.

Bottom line: Scientists in China say a desert moss commonly found on Earth can survive the harsh conditions of Mars. Future astronauts could use it to grow other plants.

Source: The extremotolerant desert moss Syntrichia caninervis is a promising pioneer plant for colonizing extraterrestrial environments

Via The Guardian

Read more: Want to find life on Mars? Look deep underground

Read more: NASA unveils Mars habitat on Earth for a yearlong test

The post This desert moss could grow on Mars, no greenhouse needed first appeared on EarthSky.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/ARG3KMc

Kangaroo rats are desert dwellers: Lifeform of the week

Can you imagine living in sweltering, brutal heat? There’s hardly any water around you. And you’re surrounded by snakes that will not stop trying to eat you…

Meet the kangaroo rat. It’s a tiny rodent with a great big set of tools for thriving in the desert world.

These spring-loaded rodents are not rats

Those survival skills are why Frank Herbert called his main character in the popular sci fi novel Dune by the nickname Muad’Dib. His actual name – known and loved by fans around the world – was Paul Atreides. But Muad’Dib was appropriate. It was the name for the kangaroo rat in the fictional language of the desert Fremen, spoken throughout the book:

Muad’Dib is wise in the ways of the desert. Muad’Dib creates his own water. Muad’Dib hides from the sun and travels in the cool night. Muad’Dib is fruitful and multiplies over the land. Muad’Dib we call ‘instructor-of-boys.’ That is a powerful base on which to build your life, Paul-Muad’Dib.

Back on Earth, kangaroo rats are from the genus Dipodomys. And they’re not rats at all. Although they are rodents, they are a species distinct from rats. On the other hand, kangaroo rats do bear a striking resemblance to – and leap just like – kangaroos. They have enormous hindlegs and long tails, much like kangaroos. But they are pint-sized compared to kangaroos. Their small size varies from 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 cm). Their tails are as long as their bodies and heads. Sometimes longer! They tip the scales at around 1.2 to 6.3 ounces (35 to 180 g).

Uniquely among rodents, kangaroo rats and their cousins kangaroo mice are bipedal. That is, they move about on two legs. And they move by jumping. Their front legs are much smaller than their back legs. Kangaroo rats use their front legs mainly for holding objects and feeding.

In this way, they’re kind of like a small, furry and adorable T-rex.

Kangaroo rats are tiny rodents with a great big set of tools for thriving in the desert world. Image via Herper47/ iNaturalist (CC BY-NC 4.0).

‘Muad’Dib is wise in the ways of the desert’

Most members of the genus Dipodomys are found in arid and semi-arid areas of western North America. They range from southern Canada to southern Mexico. A total of 23 species of kangaroo rat are known.

Normally, they feed on seeds, roots, stems, leaves and, occasionally, insects. They are able to survive without drinking water for long periods of time. Most of their hydration comes from the food they eat, which has a high water content.

Unlike the fictional Dune variety, kangaroo rats do not collect dew on their ears. But their kidneys are at least four times more efficient at retaining water and excreting salt than those of humans. Like the desert Fremen clad in their stillsuits, they are adapted to concentrate their urine. This minimizes water loss and maximizes conservation.

In the book, the animal Muad’Dib – like its real kangaroo rat cousins – is nocturnal. This way, earthly kangaroo rats avoid high daytime temperatures and reduce water loss through evaporation.

Kangaroo rats are able to survive without drinking water for long periods of time. Also, their kidneys are at least 4 times more efficient at retaining water than those of humans. Image via Coolnewbugs/ iNaturalist (CC BY-NC 4.0).

Harnessing desert power: How kangaroo rats battle snakes and win

Kangaroo rats’ hindlegs seem out of proportion. They’re four times longer than the forelegs. This allows these creatures to jump up to 10 feet (3 m). It’s practically their only defense mechanism against snakes, their biggest native threat. Unfortunately for kangaroo rats, these predators are very, very patient. Luckily, our little friends know how to defend themselves.

The kangaroo rat’s senses let it detect even the slightest low-frequency sounds. It responds within milliseconds. And even the stealthy sound produced by a crawling snake or the flapping of an owl’s wings is warning enough. Our furry friend stops, throws sand with his hindlegs at the predator or makes an impressive jump to save itself.

Even being trapped in a snake’s mouth isn’t certain death. The kangaroo rat can kick its way out before the venom is released. The same kick propels the snakes away.

And when they jump to survive, kangaroo rats swing their long tails to find balance. This leaves them in a good position to escape by jumping again. In a Harkonnen versus Atreides fight, the point goes to Muad’Dib.

All this happens in the blink of an eye. Sometimes, kangaroo rats do lose this battle. But these small animals survive the snakes’ attacks three out of four times to return safely to their burrows. As Muad’Dib learned from the Fremen, often the best defense is a good attack.

These rodents use their hindlegs as a defensive weapon and their tails for balance. Image via Coreyjlange/ iNaturalist (CC BY-NC 4.0).

The daily family life of kangaroo rats

They are very sociable animals. In fact, they sleep on top of each other to retain body heat, especially if it is winter. And they tap the ground with their big hindlegs to communicate with other kangaroo rats.

Their mating system is generally polygamous. The female gives birth after 40 days of gestation. A litter has three babies on average. After eight or 10 weeks, they are completely independent. They reach sexual maturity at eight or 12 months. Kangaroo rats can live for two to five years.

Most species of kangaroo rat use their burrows as food reserves in case there is a bad season. How thoughtful they are!

Unfortunately, these cute but tough animals have to battle with more than snakes and birds of prey. They are also highly coveted by animal traffickers. This humanmade threat – combined with humanmade reduction of their habitat – has put different families of the kangaroo rat in danger. And some are even on the verge of extinction.

For example, the giant kangaroo rat continues to be threatened by agricultural and urban development, rodenticides, and oil drilling and exploration in California. More than 98% of its habitat has disappeared.

Most species of kangaroo rat use their burrows as food reserves. They can live for 2 to 5 years. Image via Ellyne/ iNaturalist (CC0 1.0).

Bottom line: Kangaroo rats are small, desert-adapted rodents. They are highly skilled and know how to defend themselves from different predators, including poisonous snakes.

The adorable leaf sheep sea slug: Lifeform of the week

The praying mantis is a predator: Lifeform of the week

The post Kangaroo rats are desert dwellers: Lifeform of the week first appeared on EarthSky.

from EarthSky https://ift.tt/gh1q7Cd

Can you imagine living in sweltering, brutal heat? There’s hardly any water around you. And you’re surrounded by snakes that will not stop trying to eat you…

Meet the kangaroo rat. It’s a tiny rodent with a great big set of tools for thriving in the desert world.

These spring-loaded rodents are not rats

Those survival skills are why Frank Herbert called his main character in the popular sci fi novel Dune by the nickname Muad’Dib. His actual name – known and loved by fans around the world – was Paul Atreides. But Muad’Dib was appropriate. It was the name for the kangaroo rat in the fictional language of the desert Fremen, spoken throughout the book:

Muad’Dib is wise in the ways of the desert. Muad’Dib creates his own water. Muad’Dib hides from the sun and travels in the cool night. Muad’Dib is fruitful and multiplies over the land. Muad’Dib we call ‘instructor-of-boys.’ That is a powerful base on which to build your life, Paul-Muad’Dib.

Back on Earth, kangaroo rats are from the genus Dipodomys. And they’re not rats at all. Although they are rodents, they are a species distinct from rats. On the other hand, kangaroo rats do bear a striking resemblance to – and leap just like – kangaroos. They have enormous hindlegs and long tails, much like kangaroos. But they are pint-sized compared to kangaroos. Their small size varies from 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 cm). Their tails are as long as their bodies and heads. Sometimes longer! They tip the scales at around 1.2 to 6.3 ounces (35 to 180 g).

Uniquely among rodents, kangaroo rats and their cousins kangaroo mice are bipedal. That is, they move about on two legs. And they move by jumping. Their front legs are much smaller than their back legs. Kangaroo rats use their front legs mainly for holding objects and feeding.

In this way, they’re kind of like a small, furry and adorable T-rex.

Kangaroo rats are tiny rodents with a great big set of tools for thriving in the desert world. Image via Herper47/ iNaturalist (CC BY-NC 4.0).

‘Muad’Dib is wise in the ways of the desert’

Most members of the genus Dipodomys are found in arid and semi-arid areas of western North America. They range from southern Canada to southern Mexico. A total of 23 species of kangaroo rat are known.

Normally, they feed on seeds, roots, stems, leaves and, occasionally, insects. They are able to survive without drinking water for long periods of time. Most of their hydration comes from the food they eat, which has a high water content.

Unlike the fictional Dune variety, kangaroo rats do not collect dew on their ears. But their kidneys are at least four times more efficient at retaining water and excreting salt than those of humans. Like the desert Fremen clad in their stillsuits, they are adapted to concentrate their urine. This minimizes water loss and maximizes conservation.

In the book, the animal Muad’Dib – like its real kangaroo rat cousins – is nocturnal. This way, earthly kangaroo rats avoid high daytime temperatures and reduce water loss through evaporation.

Kangaroo rats are able to survive without drinking water for long periods of time. Also, their kidneys are at least 4 times more efficient at retaining water than those of humans. Image via Coolnewbugs/ iNaturalist (CC BY-NC 4.0).

Harnessing desert power: How kangaroo rats battle snakes and win

Kangaroo rats’ hindlegs seem out of proportion. They’re four times longer than the forelegs. This allows these creatures to jump up to 10 feet (3 m). It’s practically their only defense mechanism against snakes, their biggest native threat. Unfortunately for kangaroo rats, these predators are very, very patient. Luckily, our little friends know how to defend themselves.

The kangaroo rat’s senses let it detect even the slightest low-frequency sounds. It responds within milliseconds. And even the stealthy sound produced by a crawling snake or the flapping of an owl’s wings is warning enough. Our furry friend stops, throws sand with his hindlegs at the predator or makes an impressive jump to save itself.

Even being trapped in a snake’s mouth isn’t certain death. The kangaroo rat can kick its way out before the venom is released. The same kick propels the snakes away.

And when they jump to survive, kangaroo rats swing their long tails to find balance. This leaves them in a good position to escape by jumping again. In a Harkonnen versus Atreides fight, the point goes to Muad’Dib.

All this happens in the blink of an eye. Sometimes, kangaroo rats do lose this battle. But these small animals survive the snakes’ attacks three out of four times to return safely to their burrows. As Muad’Dib learned from the Fremen, often the best defense is a good attack.

These rodents use their hindlegs as a defensive weapon and their tails for balance. Image via Coreyjlange/ iNaturalist (CC BY-NC 4.0).

The daily family life of kangaroo rats

They are very sociable animals. In fact, they sleep on top of each other to retain body heat, especially if it is winter. And they tap the ground with their big hindlegs to communicate with other kangaroo rats.

Their mating system is generally polygamous. The female gives birth after 40 days of gestation. A litter has three babies on average. After eight or 10 weeks, they are completely independent. They reach sexual maturity at eight or 12 months. Kangaroo rats can live for two to five years.

Most species of kangaroo rat use their burrows as food reserves in case there is a bad season. How thoughtful they are!

Unfortunately, these cute but tough animals have to battle with more than snakes and birds of prey. They are also highly coveted by animal traffickers. This humanmade threat – combined with humanmade reduction of their habitat – has put different families of the kangaroo rat in danger. And some are even on the verge of extinction.

For example, the giant kangaroo rat continues to be threatened by agricultural and urban development, rodenticides, and oil drilling and exploration in California. More than 98% of its habitat has disappeared.

Most species of kangaroo rat use their burrows as food reserves. They can live for 2 to 5 years. Image via Ellyne/ iNaturalist (CC0 1.0).

Bottom line: Kangaroo rats are small, desert-adapted rodents. They are highly skilled and know how to defend themselves from different predators, including poisonous snakes.

The adorable leaf sheep sea slug: Lifeform of the week

The praying mantis is a predator: Lifeform of the week

The post Kangaroo rats are desert dwellers: Lifeform of the week first appeared on EarthSky.

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What are star trails, and how do I photograph them?

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Amrinderjit Singh captured these star trails from Pangong Lake, nestled 4,350 meters above sea level in the Himalayas on May 16, 2023. Amrinderjit wrote, “Behold the mesmerizing dance of stars. As the night falls, it transforms into a celestial canvas, painted with streaks of yellow, blue, and pink, courtesy of the star trails swirling above. Each streak represents the movement of Earth beneath the starlit sky, a silent yet profound reminder of our place in the cosmos. Capturing this moment was a blend of patience and wonder as I marveled at nature’s masterpiece unfolding before my eyes.” Thanks, Amrinderjit!

What are star trails?

Star trails show the motion of the stars over the sky during a period of minutes or hours. With a steady mount, long exposures and a few other tricks, you can take images of star trails, too. Often, the camera stays pointed at Polaris, the North Pole Star. In the Southern Hemisphere, photographs can point at the south celestial pole (not marked by a single star). Then, with an open shutter, the camera records an image as Earth turns on its axis and the stars move overhead. There are also many variations on star trail photos, as you’ll see here!

Star trails reflect Earth’s rotation, or spin, around its axis. The Earth makes a complete rotation relative to the backdrop stars in a period of about 23 hours and 56 minutes. So, as seen from Earth, all the stars go full circle and return to the same place in the sky after this period of time. This revolution with respect to the stars is what astronomers call a sidereal day.

Earth’s spin makes star trails

What this means is that, if you’re standing out under the stars, you see them move across the sky as the night progresses. The stars – like the sun during the daytime – move from east to west across the sky every night.

Stars near the celestial poles produce the smallest circles, while those near the celestial equator produce the largest. Each and every star moves 15 degrees westward in one hour.

Star trails are really arcs, or partial circles, whose ever-circling motions forever tabulate the passage of time.

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Nathan Eaton Jr of British Columbia submitted this composite image on June 20, 2024, and wrote: “On a recent trip to Vancouver Island, staying on the coast of the Georgia Strait in Union Bay, we had a few days of crystal clear weather. On one of those nights, I decided to try taking a star trail shot. Rather than taking one long exposure (as with film), my plan was to shoot multiple short exposures and merge them in post processing. The small arc in the center of all the other concentric arcs is the star Polaris, the North Star. The brighter star trails around it are from stars in constellations like Cassiopeia, Cepheus, Perseus, and Cygnus. If you look closely, you’ll see some color variations; not all the stars are white.” Thank you, Nathan!

What you need to capture star trails

EarthSky Facebook friend Ken Christison has some wonderful photos of star trails. He said the equipment needed for making star trails is pretty simple:

First, a camera that allows manual settings so you can set your f/stop and shutter speeds, as well as ISO.

Next, a wide-angle lens, the wider the better.

A good steady tripod is a must.

Some cameras will have a built-in intervalometer, which can be set to shoot the desirable number of frames. In some cases the intervalometer has a bit of lag between shots. This is the reason I use a separate remote attached to the camera that holds the shutter down. And when the camera is set in continuous shooting mode, it will shoot 100 frames in succession with very little gap.

The remote I use is a simple one that can be found on eBay and uses a couple of AAA batteries that last quite a while. I just use the remote controller attached to the 10 pin connector. There is no need to use the wireless receiver in this case.

I use a shutter speed of 30 seconds, ISO of 400 to 800, and – with my 14-24mm lens at 14mm – shoot it wide open at f/2.8.

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Ron Andersen in Yosemite National Park, California, captured these star trails on July 4, 2023. Ron wrote: “160 photos taken under the July full moon over Yosemite Valley.” Thank you, Ron!

How to photograph the timelapse streaks

Next, Ken said, you’re ready to capture your star trail:

Make sure the camera is level. After focusing on a star, make sure the autofocus is turned off. Then, using the settings mentioned above, click the shutter and stay around long enough to know that the shutter is actually actuating. I normally go back in the house, set the timer on our kitchen stove for 45 minutes, and do other things while the camera does its work.

When the timer sounds, go back out and reset the remote by turning it off, waiting for the shutter to close, then reset quickly.

Finally, you’ll want to process your photo. Ken said:

This is one of the most important elements in making star trail images. The program I use is free, works well and is simple to use: Startrails.exe.

One other program that I have heard works well and is also free is StarStaX.

Thank you, Ken!

Visit Ken Christison’s Facebook page.

Read more: Long exposure star trail photography

Star trails from our community

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Jose Palma of Portugal made this composite image on May 8, 2024, and wrote: “The trails of stars across the sky captures the timeless journey of the stars as they ‘cross’ the heavens, while the fireflies below, at this time of year, add a touch of earthly magic to this wonderful scene.
Together, they weave a story of harmony between the natural world and the cosmos, reminding us of the beauty and wonder that surrounds us every night.” Thank you, Jose!

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Andrea Boyle of Medford, Oregon, submitted this composite image on May 10, 2024, and wrote: “About 150 30-second shots of nearby ‘Table Rock’ and the aurora on May 10, 2024, in Southern Oregon. Images were stacked in Photoshop with minor edits done to remove or darken lights in the foreground. The colors in the sky were not evident to the unaided eye, especially one that had been reading with a flashlight. It wasn’t until I reviewed my images that I saw the brilliant color.” Thank you, Andrea.

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Soumya Seal in Kolkata, India, captured these star trails on July 7, 2023. Unlike higher latitudes, star trails closer to the equator draw less of a circle. Soumya wrote: “Nearer the celestial equator we get long star trails across the sky.” Thank you, Soumya!

Moon and sun trails from our community

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Matthew Chin in Hong Kong took these images over a week in March 2023, creating a moon trail. Matthew wrote: “If you have an open view, you can take moon photos at the same time and same location from around lunar day 6 to 21.” Thank you, Matthew! Another way to capture a moon trail is to make multiple exposures of the moon over the same night and track it as it sets (see below).

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Meiying Lee in Taipei, Taiwan, captured trails of Venus and Jupiter on March 2, 2023. Meiying wrote: “Venus and Jupiter set side by side in the night sky of Taipei.” Thank you, Meiying!

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Meiying Lee in Hsinchu, Taiwan, captured this moon trail on October 28, 2022. Meiying wrote: “I photographed the track of the moon setting for nearly an hour. Because of the enhanced exposure, earthshine appears clearly. Many of the red dots below are wind turbines on the shore or on the sea.” Thank you, Meiying!

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Meiying Lee in Taipei, Taiwan, shared this sun trail with Venus and Mercury from December 24, 2022. Can you find all the solar system objects as they set? The sun, Mercury, Venus and moon are all captured in this composite. Thank you, Meiying!

A star trails video

EarthSky’s own Raúl Cortés captured this video of star trails on July 13, 2023, from Monterrey, Mexico. The bright orange streak near the horizon is the star Antares in the constellation Scorpius the Scorpion.

Bottom line: Star trails are photographs of the sky taken with long exposures. The result is an image with stars trailing across the sky in concentric streaks, often whirling around one of the celestial poles. But you can also take photos of sun trails, moon trails, or trails of the planets.

The post What are star trails, and how do I photograph them? first appeared on EarthSky.

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View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Amrinderjit Singh captured these star trails from Pangong Lake, nestled 4,350 meters above sea level in the Himalayas on May 16, 2023. Amrinderjit wrote, “Behold the mesmerizing dance of stars. As the night falls, it transforms into a celestial canvas, painted with streaks of yellow, blue, and pink, courtesy of the star trails swirling above. Each streak represents the movement of Earth beneath the starlit sky, a silent yet profound reminder of our place in the cosmos. Capturing this moment was a blend of patience and wonder as I marveled at nature’s masterpiece unfolding before my eyes.” Thanks, Amrinderjit!

What are star trails?

Star trails show the motion of the stars over the sky during a period of minutes or hours. With a steady mount, long exposures and a few other tricks, you can take images of star trails, too. Often, the camera stays pointed at Polaris, the North Pole Star. In the Southern Hemisphere, photographs can point at the south celestial pole (not marked by a single star). Then, with an open shutter, the camera records an image as Earth turns on its axis and the stars move overhead. There are also many variations on star trail photos, as you’ll see here!

Star trails reflect Earth’s rotation, or spin, around its axis. The Earth makes a complete rotation relative to the backdrop stars in a period of about 23 hours and 56 minutes. So, as seen from Earth, all the stars go full circle and return to the same place in the sky after this period of time. This revolution with respect to the stars is what astronomers call a sidereal day.

Earth’s spin makes star trails

What this means is that, if you’re standing out under the stars, you see them move across the sky as the night progresses. The stars – like the sun during the daytime – move from east to west across the sky every night.

Stars near the celestial poles produce the smallest circles, while those near the celestial equator produce the largest. Each and every star moves 15 degrees westward in one hour.

Star trails are really arcs, or partial circles, whose ever-circling motions forever tabulate the passage of time.

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Nathan Eaton Jr of British Columbia submitted this composite image on June 20, 2024, and wrote: “On a recent trip to Vancouver Island, staying on the coast of the Georgia Strait in Union Bay, we had a few days of crystal clear weather. On one of those nights, I decided to try taking a star trail shot. Rather than taking one long exposure (as with film), my plan was to shoot multiple short exposures and merge them in post processing. The small arc in the center of all the other concentric arcs is the star Polaris, the North Star. The brighter star trails around it are from stars in constellations like Cassiopeia, Cepheus, Perseus, and Cygnus. If you look closely, you’ll see some color variations; not all the stars are white.” Thank you, Nathan!

What you need to capture star trails

EarthSky Facebook friend Ken Christison has some wonderful photos of star trails. He said the equipment needed for making star trails is pretty simple:

First, a camera that allows manual settings so you can set your f/stop and shutter speeds, as well as ISO.

Next, a wide-angle lens, the wider the better.

A good steady tripod is a must.

Some cameras will have a built-in intervalometer, which can be set to shoot the desirable number of frames. In some cases the intervalometer has a bit of lag between shots. This is the reason I use a separate remote attached to the camera that holds the shutter down. And when the camera is set in continuous shooting mode, it will shoot 100 frames in succession with very little gap.

The remote I use is a simple one that can be found on eBay and uses a couple of AAA batteries that last quite a while. I just use the remote controller attached to the 10 pin connector. There is no need to use the wireless receiver in this case.

I use a shutter speed of 30 seconds, ISO of 400 to 800, and – with my 14-24mm lens at 14mm – shoot it wide open at f/2.8.

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Ron Andersen in Yosemite National Park, California, captured these star trails on July 4, 2023. Ron wrote: “160 photos taken under the July full moon over Yosemite Valley.” Thank you, Ron!

How to photograph the timelapse streaks

Next, Ken said, you’re ready to capture your star trail:

Make sure the camera is level. After focusing on a star, make sure the autofocus is turned off. Then, using the settings mentioned above, click the shutter and stay around long enough to know that the shutter is actually actuating. I normally go back in the house, set the timer on our kitchen stove for 45 minutes, and do other things while the camera does its work.

When the timer sounds, go back out and reset the remote by turning it off, waiting for the shutter to close, then reset quickly.

Finally, you’ll want to process your photo. Ken said:

This is one of the most important elements in making star trail images. The program I use is free, works well and is simple to use: Startrails.exe.

One other program that I have heard works well and is also free is StarStaX.

Thank you, Ken!

Visit Ken Christison’s Facebook page.

Read more: Long exposure star trail photography

Star trails from our community

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Jose Palma of Portugal made this composite image on May 8, 2024, and wrote: “The trails of stars across the sky captures the timeless journey of the stars as they ‘cross’ the heavens, while the fireflies below, at this time of year, add a touch of earthly magic to this wonderful scene.
Together, they weave a story of harmony between the natural world and the cosmos, reminding us of the beauty and wonder that surrounds us every night.” Thank you, Jose!

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Andrea Boyle of Medford, Oregon, submitted this composite image on May 10, 2024, and wrote: “About 150 30-second shots of nearby ‘Table Rock’ and the aurora on May 10, 2024, in Southern Oregon. Images were stacked in Photoshop with minor edits done to remove or darken lights in the foreground. The colors in the sky were not evident to the unaided eye, especially one that had been reading with a flashlight. It wasn’t until I reviewed my images that I saw the brilliant color.” Thank you, Andrea.

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Soumya Seal in Kolkata, India, captured these star trails on July 7, 2023. Unlike higher latitudes, star trails closer to the equator draw less of a circle. Soumya wrote: “Nearer the celestial equator we get long star trails across the sky.” Thank you, Soumya!

Moon and sun trails from our community

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Matthew Chin in Hong Kong took these images over a week in March 2023, creating a moon trail. Matthew wrote: “If you have an open view, you can take moon photos at the same time and same location from around lunar day 6 to 21.” Thank you, Matthew! Another way to capture a moon trail is to make multiple exposures of the moon over the same night and track it as it sets (see below).

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Meiying Lee in Taipei, Taiwan, captured trails of Venus and Jupiter on March 2, 2023. Meiying wrote: “Venus and Jupiter set side by side in the night sky of Taipei.” Thank you, Meiying!

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Meiying Lee in Hsinchu, Taiwan, captured this moon trail on October 28, 2022. Meiying wrote: “I photographed the track of the moon setting for nearly an hour. Because of the enhanced exposure, earthshine appears clearly. Many of the red dots below are wind turbines on the shore or on the sea.” Thank you, Meiying!

View at EarthSky Community Photos. | Meiying Lee in Taipei, Taiwan, shared this sun trail with Venus and Mercury from December 24, 2022. Can you find all the solar system objects as they set? The sun, Mercury, Venus and moon are all captured in this composite. Thank you, Meiying!

A star trails video

EarthSky’s own Raúl Cortés captured this video of star trails on July 13, 2023, from Monterrey, Mexico. The bright orange streak near the horizon is the star Antares in the constellation Scorpius the Scorpion.

Bottom line: Star trails are photographs of the sky taken with long exposures. The result is an image with stars trailing across the sky in concentric streaks, often whirling around one of the celestial poles. But you can also take photos of sun trails, moon trails, or trails of the planets.

The post What are star trails, and how do I photograph them? first appeared on EarthSky.

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Satellite trails – and a comet – crisscross Arizona sky

Satellite trails crisscross the night

John Ashley in southern Arizona emailed a timelapse video to EarthSky this week, showing Comet 13P/Olbers crossing the sky. But even more noticeable are the “tons of satellite trails,” as John said. The onslaught of satellites makes it difficult to concentrate on the fuzzy solar system visitor passing Earth. Also, see if you can spot the two airplanes in the video. Here’s what John told EarthSky about making the video:

We have at least a week of monsoon clouds in the forecast here in southern Arizona. So on the night of July 9, I drove over to Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge to see if I could find Comet 13P/Olbers through the thin layer of local haze and wildfire smoke (from Utah). It was 100 F (37.7 C) at sunset, partly cloudy, with a bit of illumination from a 17% crescent moon when I started this timelapse at 8:53 p.m.

I scanned all evening with binoculars, but was unable to see the comet with my eyes. Atmospheric extinction along the western horizon was pretty bad, with most of the stars also disappearing before reaching the mountains.

The satellites above the haze, however, were easily visible to my eyes. The composite image at the end of the video only includes 45 minutes’ worth of images when the comet was in the frame (9:45 p.m. to 10:30 p.m.). Curving lines angling down are stars, straight lines angling up are satellites, and the comet trail is barely visible if you know exactly where to look.

Are satellites ruining the night sky?

The issue of satellites is hotly debated among astronomers. Here’s what John had to say about this modern form of light pollution.

I’ve been a dark sky advocate for a decade now, giving many public programs. And I’ve found that preaching doesn’t really work. So now I just try to show people examples of light pollution, and they’ll decide if it’s important enough to address somehow in their own lives. A lot of these satellites are useful to us all. I rely on some of them for weather, climate change and light pollution data. So it’s not like they are going away anytime soon. It’s just sad to see the crazy proliferation, and I miss the days when ‘spot the satellite’ was fun.

John Ashley took a 45-minute long-exposure image of the night sky over Arizona on July 9, 2024. And he captured this many satellite trails. Wow. Thank you, John. Used with permission.

Bottom line: John Ashley captured satellite trails crisscrossing the Arizona night sky on July 9, 2024, while attempting to capture Comet 13P/Olbers. Watch his video here.

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Satellite trails crisscross the night

John Ashley in southern Arizona emailed a timelapse video to EarthSky this week, showing Comet 13P/Olbers crossing the sky. But even more noticeable are the “tons of satellite trails,” as John said. The onslaught of satellites makes it difficult to concentrate on the fuzzy solar system visitor passing Earth. Also, see if you can spot the two airplanes in the video. Here’s what John told EarthSky about making the video:

We have at least a week of monsoon clouds in the forecast here in southern Arizona. So on the night of July 9, I drove over to Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge to see if I could find Comet 13P/Olbers through the thin layer of local haze and wildfire smoke (from Utah). It was 100 F (37.7 C) at sunset, partly cloudy, with a bit of illumination from a 17% crescent moon when I started this timelapse at 8:53 p.m.

I scanned all evening with binoculars, but was unable to see the comet with my eyes. Atmospheric extinction along the western horizon was pretty bad, with most of the stars also disappearing before reaching the mountains.

The satellites above the haze, however, were easily visible to my eyes. The composite image at the end of the video only includes 45 minutes’ worth of images when the comet was in the frame (9:45 p.m. to 10:30 p.m.). Curving lines angling down are stars, straight lines angling up are satellites, and the comet trail is barely visible if you know exactly where to look.

Are satellites ruining the night sky?

The issue of satellites is hotly debated among astronomers. Here’s what John had to say about this modern form of light pollution.

I’ve been a dark sky advocate for a decade now, giving many public programs. And I’ve found that preaching doesn’t really work. So now I just try to show people examples of light pollution, and they’ll decide if it’s important enough to address somehow in their own lives. A lot of these satellites are useful to us all. I rely on some of them for weather, climate change and light pollution data. So it’s not like they are going away anytime soon. It’s just sad to see the crazy proliferation, and I miss the days when ‘spot the satellite’ was fun.

John Ashley took a 45-minute long-exposure image of the night sky over Arizona on July 9, 2024. And he captured this many satellite trails. Wow. Thank you, John. Used with permission.

Bottom line: John Ashley captured satellite trails crisscrossing the Arizona night sky on July 9, 2024, while attempting to capture Comet 13P/Olbers. Watch his video here.

The post Satellite trails – and a comet – crisscross Arizona sky first appeared on EarthSky.

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The Penguin and the Egg, interacting galaxies from Webb

View larger. | Meet the Penguin and the Egg, 2 galaxies locked in a gravitational embrace. The Penguin is a spiral galaxy undergoing distortion due to its close interactions with the elliptical Egg galaxy. Arp 142 is another name for this galactic duo. Image via Webb/ NASA/ ESA/ CSA/ STScI.

The Penguin and the Egg

The Webb Space Telescope has released a gorgeous image of interacting galaxies in celebration of its 2nd anniversary. Webb, which sees in infrared light, released this image on July 12, 2024. The pair of galaxies are nicknamed the Penguin and the Egg, or collectively they’re known as Arp 142.

The two galaxies are about 100,000 light-years away from each other. That may sound far, but on the scale of the universe, it’s really quite close! In fact, it’s about as far apart as our Milky Way is wide.

The near- and mid-infrared observations from Webb’s cameras reveal a bluish cocoon around the galaxies. This haze is made of stars and gas from the galaxies’ interactions. The galaxies will continue to loop around each other in a gravitational dance for hundreds of million of years until they eventually merge into a single galaxy.

More about the interacting galaxies

The galactic interaction has sparked star formation in the Penguin, most notably in its beak and tail feathers. Meanwhile, the elliptical Egg galaxy is older with less free gas to stir new star formation. The galaxies lie about 326 million light-years away from us in the direction of the constellation Hydra.

Now take a little time to look beyond the large galaxies in the image to the many, many other galaxies. The bluish galaxy at top right is about 100,000 light-years closer than the merging pair. This galaxy has the catalog designation PGC 1237172 and is relatively young. Most of the other galaxies here are more distant spirals and ovals captured in just a few hours of observation.

If you want an even closer look, check out a fly-through visualization here.

Bottom line: The Penguin and the Egg are two interacting galaxies that will one day merge. Webb released this image for its 2nd anniversary of science observations.

Via Webb Telescope

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View larger. | Meet the Penguin and the Egg, 2 galaxies locked in a gravitational embrace. The Penguin is a spiral galaxy undergoing distortion due to its close interactions with the elliptical Egg galaxy. Arp 142 is another name for this galactic duo. Image via Webb/ NASA/ ESA/ CSA/ STScI.

The Penguin and the Egg

The Webb Space Telescope has released a gorgeous image of interacting galaxies in celebration of its 2nd anniversary. Webb, which sees in infrared light, released this image on July 12, 2024. The pair of galaxies are nicknamed the Penguin and the Egg, or collectively they’re known as Arp 142.

The two galaxies are about 100,000 light-years away from each other. That may sound far, but on the scale of the universe, it’s really quite close! In fact, it’s about as far apart as our Milky Way is wide.

The near- and mid-infrared observations from Webb’s cameras reveal a bluish cocoon around the galaxies. This haze is made of stars and gas from the galaxies’ interactions. The galaxies will continue to loop around each other in a gravitational dance for hundreds of million of years until they eventually merge into a single galaxy.

More about the interacting galaxies

The galactic interaction has sparked star formation in the Penguin, most notably in its beak and tail feathers. Meanwhile, the elliptical Egg galaxy is older with less free gas to stir new star formation. The galaxies lie about 326 million light-years away from us in the direction of the constellation Hydra.

Now take a little time to look beyond the large galaxies in the image to the many, many other galaxies. The bluish galaxy at top right is about 100,000 light-years closer than the merging pair. This galaxy has the catalog designation PGC 1237172 and is relatively young. Most of the other galaxies here are more distant spirals and ovals captured in just a few hours of observation.

If you want an even closer look, check out a fly-through visualization here.

Bottom line: The Penguin and the Egg are two interacting galaxies that will one day merge. Webb released this image for its 2nd anniversary of science observations.

Via Webb Telescope

The post The Penguin and the Egg, interacting galaxies from Webb first appeared on EarthSky.

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Map shows extreme heat hammering U.S. coasts

This map shows air temperatures across the U.S. on July 10, 2024. The map is a combination of observations from satellites and other sources with temperatures predicted by a version of the Geostationary Earth Observing System (GEOS) model. GEOS uses mathematical equations to represent physical processes in the atmosphere. The darkest reds indicate extreme heat with temperatures of more than 104 degrees Fahrenheit (40 C) at about 6.5 feet (2 m) above the ground. Image via NASA Earth Observatory.

NASA Earth Observatory published this original article on July 10, 2024. Edits by EarthSky.

Extreme heat hammers U.S. coasts

In June 2024, early summer heat waves hit both the western and eastern United States. Temperatures in July have not brought much relief.

The map above shows how, in the West, there are many areas of intense heat west of the Rockies, from Mexico to Canada. According to the National Weather Service (NWS), temperatures commonly surged over 100 F (37.7 C) on July 10, causing widespread heat risk. On that same day, parts of the East – from South Carolina to Massachusetts – were under heat warnings or advisories. High humidity boosted the heat index to over 100 F in some places. The higher the heat index, which indicates how hot it feels when accounting for both temperature and relative humidity, the harder it is for the human body to cool itself.

In parts of the Midwest, cooler-than-average temperatures followed the northeastward path of Cyclone Beryl’s remnants. But in southeast Texas, temperatures on July 10 remained in the 90s. And heat indices climbed over 100 F (37.7 C). After Beryl swept ashore as a Category 1 hurricane on July 8, the lack of electrical power and air conditioning raised the risk for heat-related illnesses, according to NWS Houston.

A closer look at the U.S. Southwest

The map below shows a detailed view of the Southwest, where heat in early July has been especially intense. On July 10, Las Vegas saw its 5th consecutive day of temperatures of at least 115 F (46 C), according to NWS Las Vegas. Those temperatures hovered around the city’s previous all-time high of 117 F (47 C) but below the new all-time record of 120 F (49 C). That new record is from just a week ago, on July 7, 2024. Palm Springs, California, also hit an all-time high of 124 F on July 5. And Death Valley approached its record high when the temperature reached 129 F on July 7, according to The Washington Post.

Forecasters expect little relief from the long-lasting heat wave in the coming days, with dangerous temperatures in the West persisting through July 13 and the threat of extreme heat in the West increasing starting July 15.

Here’s detailed view of the Southwest from July 10, 2024. In the American Southwest, the heat in early July has been especially intense. Image via NASA Earth Observatory.

Bottom line: Extreme heat has hammered the U.S. already this summer. Take a look at a map of the states and learn more about the heat on the East and West Coasts.

Via NASA Earth Observatory

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This map shows air temperatures across the U.S. on July 10, 2024. The map is a combination of observations from satellites and other sources with temperatures predicted by a version of the Geostationary Earth Observing System (GEOS) model. GEOS uses mathematical equations to represent physical processes in the atmosphere. The darkest reds indicate extreme heat with temperatures of more than 104 degrees Fahrenheit (40 C) at about 6.5 feet (2 m) above the ground. Image via NASA Earth Observatory.

NASA Earth Observatory published this original article on July 10, 2024. Edits by EarthSky.

Extreme heat hammers U.S. coasts

In June 2024, early summer heat waves hit both the western and eastern United States. Temperatures in July have not brought much relief.

The map above shows how, in the West, there are many areas of intense heat west of the Rockies, from Mexico to Canada. According to the National Weather Service (NWS), temperatures commonly surged over 100 F (37.7 C) on July 10, causing widespread heat risk. On that same day, parts of the East – from South Carolina to Massachusetts – were under heat warnings or advisories. High humidity boosted the heat index to over 100 F in some places. The higher the heat index, which indicates how hot it feels when accounting for both temperature and relative humidity, the harder it is for the human body to cool itself.

In parts of the Midwest, cooler-than-average temperatures followed the northeastward path of Cyclone Beryl’s remnants. But in southeast Texas, temperatures on July 10 remained in the 90s. And heat indices climbed over 100 F (37.7 C). After Beryl swept ashore as a Category 1 hurricane on July 8, the lack of electrical power and air conditioning raised the risk for heat-related illnesses, according to NWS Houston.

A closer look at the U.S. Southwest

The map below shows a detailed view of the Southwest, where heat in early July has been especially intense. On July 10, Las Vegas saw its 5th consecutive day of temperatures of at least 115 F (46 C), according to NWS Las Vegas. Those temperatures hovered around the city’s previous all-time high of 117 F (47 C) but below the new all-time record of 120 F (49 C). That new record is from just a week ago, on July 7, 2024. Palm Springs, California, also hit an all-time high of 124 F on July 5. And Death Valley approached its record high when the temperature reached 129 F on July 7, according to The Washington Post.

Forecasters expect little relief from the long-lasting heat wave in the coming days, with dangerous temperatures in the West persisting through July 13 and the threat of extreme heat in the West increasing starting July 15.

Here’s detailed view of the Southwest from July 10, 2024. In the American Southwest, the heat in early July has been especially intense. Image via NASA Earth Observatory.

Bottom line: Extreme heat has hammered the U.S. already this summer. Take a look at a map of the states and learn more about the heat on the East and West Coasts.

Via NASA Earth Observatory

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Falling Starlink satellites, Falcon 9 failure and grounding

A Starlink satellite launch on a Falcon 9 on July 3, 2024, from Florida. On July 11, 2024, another Falcon 9 – launched from Vandenberg Space Force Base in California – malfunctioned critically. It failed to raise its cargo of 20 Starlink satellites to their proper orbit. Keep an eye out for falling Starlink satellites. Meanwhile, the FAA has grounded the Falcon 9. Image via SpaceX.

Rare Falcon 9 ‘RUD’ puts Starlink mini-satellites in bad orbit

An engine on a space-bound Falcon 9 lift vehicle exploded unexpectedly Thursday night (July 11, 2024). The malfunction happened about an hour after liftoff from Vandenberg Space Force Base at 7:25 p.m. PDT (02:25 UTC on July 12). It left the rocket ship’s cargo – 20 Starlink v.2 mini satellites – unable to reach their intended orbit. The rare failure means skywatchers should start looking for falling Starlink debris.

SpaceX CEO Elon Musk announced the RUD – euphemistic company jargon for a “rapid unscheduled disassembly” – on X.com (formerly Twitter):

Upper stage restart to raise perigee resulted in an engine RUD for reasons currently unknown. Team is reviewing data tonight to understand root cause.

Starlink satellites were deployed, but the perigee may be too low for them to raise orbit. Will know more in a few hours.

— Elon Musk (@elonmusk) July 12, 2024

SpaceX said in a statement that a leak in the vehicle’s second stage engine caused the malfunction:

Falcon 9’s second stage performed its first burn nominally, however a liquid oxygen leak developed on the second stage. After a planned relight of the upper stage engine to raise perigee – or the lowest point of orbit – the Merlin Vacuum engine experienced an anomaly and was unable to complete its second burn.

The British news agency Reuters reported it was the first failure of a SpaceX Falcon 9 in seven years. Until Wednesday’s failure, the Falcon 9 flew 364 successful missions.

Luckless satellites are falling to Earth fast

SpaceX officials said via X.com they were able to regain communication with some of the satellites. Then controllers sent instructions to fire onboard thrusters to raise their low orbits. They company said it wasn’t counting on success:

The team made contact with 10 of the satellites and attempted to have them raise orbit using their ion thrusters, but they are in an enormously high-drag environment with their perigee, or lowest point of their elliptical orbit, only 135 km above the Earth

— SpaceX (@SpaceX) July 12, 2024

Unless the satellites can gain enough speed, they will tumble into a fiery re-entry. CEO Musk was more blunt about the likelihood of recovery. He tweeted his pessimism:

We’re updating satellite software to run the ion thrusters at their equivalent of warp 9. Unlike a Star Trek episode, this will probably not work, but it’s worth a shot.

We’re updating satellite software to run the ion thrusters at their equivalent of warp 9.

Unlike a Star Trek episode, this will probably not work, but it’s worth a shot.

The satellite thrusters need to raise orbit faster than atmospheric drag pulls them down or they burn up.

— Elon Musk (@elonmusk) July 12, 2024

Falcon 9 grounded by FAA until problem fixed

The Associated Press reported the company must fix the engine problem before the Falcon 9 can fly again. The will likely set the company scrambling, as their launch calendar is crammed.

The next scheduled flight of the Falcon 9 was to happen in mid-July. It’s now on hold. The vehicle was to carry Space Norway’s pair of Arctic Satellite Broadband Mission satellite constellations to orbit. The satellites – made by Northrop Grumman – will provide commercial broadband and protected military communications.

The presumably temporary loss of the Falcon 9 sent the aerospace company into spin mode. Their statement on the incident says they expect a quick return to flight:

SpaceX will perform a full investigation in coordination with the FAA, determine root cause, and make corrective actions to ensure the success of future missions. With a robust satellite and rocket production capability, and a high launch cadence, we’re positioned to rapidly recover and continue our pace as the world’s most active launch services provider.

The FAA said a full fix and perhaps a new license will be required to get the Falcon 9 flying:

A return to flight is based on the FAA determining that any system, process, or procedure related to the mishap does not affect public safety. In addition, SpaceX may need to request and receive approval from the FAA to modify its license that incorporates any corrective actions and meet all other licensing requirements.

As of July 12, 2024, SpaceX has launched the Falcon 9 70 times this year. And this accounts for more than half of the 137 orbital launches made worldwide this year.

Scan the skies for falling Starlink satellites soon

Each time the doomed satellites pass closest to Earth, they lose about 3.1 miles (5 km) of altitude. The drag of the planet’s atmosphere is slowing them down. And inevitably it will bring them down.

According to the AP report on the incident, SpaceX has not given a time when the falling Starlink satellites will begin re-entering. Unconfirmed rumors on X.com say to expect them within three days.

When a falling Starlink satellite burns, it does so messily. SpaceX designed the satellites to disintegrate completely on re-entry. They said:

At this level of drag, our maximum available thrust is unlikely to be enough to successfully raise the satellites. As such, the satellites will re-enter Earth’s atmosphere and fully demise. They do not pose a threat to other satellites in orbit or to public safety.

The FAA doesn’t agree. In a 2023 report to Congress, the agency said falling Starlink debris could kill or maim:

By 2035, if the expected large constellation growth is realized and debris from Starlink satellites survive reentry, the total number of hazardous fragments surviving reentries each year is expected to reach 28,000, and the casualty expectation, the number of individuals on the ground predicted to be injured or killed by debris surviving the reentries of satellites being disposed from these constellations, would be 0.6 per year, which means that one person on the planet would be expected to be injured or killed every two years.

CNN reported SpaceX called the FAA’s assertion “preposterous, unjustified, and inaccurate.”

Falling Starlink satellites aren’t new

More than 6,000 Starlink satellites are currently in low Earth orbit. Starlink satellites have failed to reach their intended orbit before. In 2022, 40 Starlink satellites made an early reentry when a geomagnetic storm hit the day after their launch, increasing their drag. Here’s a video of a Starlink satellite reentering over Puerto Rico, to give you an idea of what to look for.

Bottom line: A SpaceX Falcon 9 carrying a cargo of Starlink satellites failed to reach proper orbit. The falling Starlink are expected to make fiery re-entry within days.

Read more: List of SpaceX Starlink launches for July 2024

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A Starlink satellite launch on a Falcon 9 on July 3, 2024, from Florida. On July 11, 2024, another Falcon 9 – launched from Vandenberg Space Force Base in California – malfunctioned critically. It failed to raise its cargo of 20 Starlink satellites to their proper orbit. Keep an eye out for falling Starlink satellites. Meanwhile, the FAA has grounded the Falcon 9. Image via SpaceX.

Rare Falcon 9 ‘RUD’ puts Starlink mini-satellites in bad orbit

An engine on a space-bound Falcon 9 lift vehicle exploded unexpectedly Thursday night (July 11, 2024). The malfunction happened about an hour after liftoff from Vandenberg Space Force Base at 7:25 p.m. PDT (02:25 UTC on July 12). It left the rocket ship’s cargo – 20 Starlink v.2 mini satellites – unable to reach their intended orbit. The rare failure means skywatchers should start looking for falling Starlink debris.

SpaceX CEO Elon Musk announced the RUD – euphemistic company jargon for a “rapid unscheduled disassembly” – on X.com (formerly Twitter):

Upper stage restart to raise perigee resulted in an engine RUD for reasons currently unknown. Team is reviewing data tonight to understand root cause.

Starlink satellites were deployed, but the perigee may be too low for them to raise orbit. Will know more in a few hours.

— Elon Musk (@elonmusk) July 12, 2024

SpaceX said in a statement that a leak in the vehicle’s second stage engine caused the malfunction:

Falcon 9’s second stage performed its first burn nominally, however a liquid oxygen leak developed on the second stage. After a planned relight of the upper stage engine to raise perigee – or the lowest point of orbit – the Merlin Vacuum engine experienced an anomaly and was unable to complete its second burn.

The British news agency Reuters reported it was the first failure of a SpaceX Falcon 9 in seven years. Until Wednesday’s failure, the Falcon 9 flew 364 successful missions.

Luckless satellites are falling to Earth fast

SpaceX officials said via X.com they were able to regain communication with some of the satellites. Then controllers sent instructions to fire onboard thrusters to raise their low orbits. They company said it wasn’t counting on success:

The team made contact with 10 of the satellites and attempted to have them raise orbit using their ion thrusters, but they are in an enormously high-drag environment with their perigee, or lowest point of their elliptical orbit, only 135 km above the Earth

— SpaceX (@SpaceX) July 12, 2024

Unless the satellites can gain enough speed, they will tumble into a fiery re-entry. CEO Musk was more blunt about the likelihood of recovery. He tweeted his pessimism:

We’re updating satellite software to run the ion thrusters at their equivalent of warp 9. Unlike a Star Trek episode, this will probably not work, but it’s worth a shot.

We’re updating satellite software to run the ion thrusters at their equivalent of warp 9.

Unlike a Star Trek episode, this will probably not work, but it’s worth a shot.

The satellite thrusters need to raise orbit faster than atmospheric drag pulls them down or they burn up.

— Elon Musk (@elonmusk) July 12, 2024

Falcon 9 grounded by FAA until problem fixed

The Associated Press reported the company must fix the engine problem before the Falcon 9 can fly again. The will likely set the company scrambling, as their launch calendar is crammed.

The next scheduled flight of the Falcon 9 was to happen in mid-July. It’s now on hold. The vehicle was to carry Space Norway’s pair of Arctic Satellite Broadband Mission satellite constellations to orbit. The satellites – made by Northrop Grumman – will provide commercial broadband and protected military communications.

The presumably temporary loss of the Falcon 9 sent the aerospace company into spin mode. Their statement on the incident says they expect a quick return to flight:

SpaceX will perform a full investigation in coordination with the FAA, determine root cause, and make corrective actions to ensure the success of future missions. With a robust satellite and rocket production capability, and a high launch cadence, we’re positioned to rapidly recover and continue our pace as the world’s most active launch services provider.

The FAA said a full fix and perhaps a new license will be required to get the Falcon 9 flying:

A return to flight is based on the FAA determining that any system, process, or procedure related to the mishap does not affect public safety. In addition, SpaceX may need to request and receive approval from the FAA to modify its license that incorporates any corrective actions and meet all other licensing requirements.

As of July 12, 2024, SpaceX has launched the Falcon 9 70 times this year. And this accounts for more than half of the 137 orbital launches made worldwide this year.

Scan the skies for falling Starlink satellites soon

Each time the doomed satellites pass closest to Earth, they lose about 3.1 miles (5 km) of altitude. The drag of the planet’s atmosphere is slowing them down. And inevitably it will bring them down.

According to the AP report on the incident, SpaceX has not given a time when the falling Starlink satellites will begin re-entering. Unconfirmed rumors on X.com say to expect them within three days.

When a falling Starlink satellite burns, it does so messily. SpaceX designed the satellites to disintegrate completely on re-entry. They said:

At this level of drag, our maximum available thrust is unlikely to be enough to successfully raise the satellites. As such, the satellites will re-enter Earth’s atmosphere and fully demise. They do not pose a threat to other satellites in orbit or to public safety.

The FAA doesn’t agree. In a 2023 report to Congress, the agency said falling Starlink debris could kill or maim:

By 2035, if the expected large constellation growth is realized and debris from Starlink satellites survive reentry, the total number of hazardous fragments surviving reentries each year is expected to reach 28,000, and the casualty expectation, the number of individuals on the ground predicted to be injured or killed by debris surviving the reentries of satellites being disposed from these constellations, would be 0.6 per year, which means that one person on the planet would be expected to be injured or killed every two years.

CNN reported SpaceX called the FAA’s assertion “preposterous, unjustified, and inaccurate.”

Falling Starlink satellites aren’t new

More than 6,000 Starlink satellites are currently in low Earth orbit. Starlink satellites have failed to reach their intended orbit before. In 2022, 40 Starlink satellites made an early reentry when a geomagnetic storm hit the day after their launch, increasing their drag. Here’s a video of a Starlink satellite reentering over Puerto Rico, to give you an idea of what to look for.

Bottom line: A SpaceX Falcon 9 carrying a cargo of Starlink satellites failed to reach proper orbit. The falling Starlink are expected to make fiery re-entry within days.

Read more: List of SpaceX Starlink launches for July 2024

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