Childhood Cancer Awareness Month: 9 top questions answered

Today marks the start of Childhood Cancer Awareness Month, which aims to raise awareness around children’s cancers.

Every year, around 4,200 children and young people in the UK (ages 0-24) are diagnosed with cancer. But while survival for this group has improved a lot in the last 40 years, more needs to be done. Not only to increase survival but to ensure that those who do survive, do so with a good quality of life.

September is therefore an important time for us to talk about Cancer Research UK Kids & Teens, a fundraising campaign we set up to support research into new, better and kinder treatments for children and young people with cancer.

Deciding how we approach this challenge isn’t easy, especially with a subject as emotive as childhood cancer. And we’re asked a lot of questions about the ‘how’, ‘why’ and ‘how much’ decisions we make when funding research, and about our campaign.

Here, Dr Ian Walker, Director of Clinical Research at Cancer Research UK, answers some of the most common questions.

How does Cancer Research UK decide what research to fund?

As a charity, we don’t allocate set amounts of money to specific types of cancer. Instead, the amount we spend on different cancers depends on the number of high quality research proposals we get from researchers.

We decide what research to fund based solely on the applications submitted to us by the research community. And that’s why the range of research we fund and the amount we spend on different cancers changes each year.

The process works by scientists or doctors submitting a research proposal to us based on what they would like to work on. This proposal is reviewed by an international panel of experts and then further discussed by a second, separate panel of experts. Each research proposal is judged on its scientific merit, strategic priority, feasibility and the impact it could have for people with cancer.

If the panels decide the research is of the highest quality, that it will increase our understanding of cancer, and ultimately underpins improvements in outcomes for patients, we agree to fund it. You can learn more about the process here and here.

What percentage of the money you spend on research goes towards cancers affecting children and young people?

In 2016/17 we spent £6.1 million on research grants specifically focused on cancers affecting children and young people. This equates to 1.4% of the £428 million we paid out in 2016/17 on charitable activities. You can read more about this in our Annual Report and Accounts.

We also invest a huge amount of money (£112 million in 2016/17) in research to understand the ‘nuts and bolts’ of cancers’ many forms. This includes research into what goes wrong in cancer cells, what their weaknesses are, and how they develop in the first place. This work is relevant to all types of cancer, including those affecting children and young people. And it plays a vital role in the development of new, better and kinder ways to prevent, diagnose and treat cancer.

A large amount of the money we spend outside of research grants is used to give scientists the best facilities and services in which to carry out their life-saving work. This includes establishing and running our Centres, Institutes, biobanks and Clinical Trials Units across the UK. We also co-fund 18 Experimental Cancer Medicine Centres (ECMCs), which bring world-leading doctors, research nurses and technical staff together to develop and test new cancer treatments.

This work includes funding and running a paediatric Clinical Trials Unit, a paediatric ECMC network and a paediatric biobank across the UK.

So while we spent £6.1 million on research specifically into children’s cancers in 2016/17, the money we spend on fundamental cancer research and on creating a world-class research environment will also help us beat children’s cancers sooner.

What happens to any excess funds that are raised but aren’t spent?

Cancer Research UK Kids & Teens is a restricted fundraising campaign. This means 100% of the money raised through the campaign is used to fund research into cancers affecting children and young people. But it doesn’t mean that we always spend all of the donations we receive in a given year.

That’s because we won’t fund sub-standard projects that our expert reviewers believe won’t increase our understanding of cancers that affect children and young people or bring benefits to patients. Instead, any excess funds are carried over to next year, where they are available to fund high quality research proposals we receive that year.

What are you doing to generate more research into children’s cancers?

Cancers affecting children and young people have always been important to us, and we have a strong track record when it comes to working in this area.

But we are still losing too many children to cancer, and some survivors have long-term side effects that can affect them for the rest of their lives.

In order to accelerate progress, we need to see an increase in the number of high quality research proposals we receive. Part of the reason we don’t receive as many research proposals for children’s cancers is because there are fewer researchers working in this area. That’s why we’re working to boost interest among younger researchers across the UK and encourage them to consider working on children’s cancers.

We’ve also been working on the services and facilities required for delivering high quality research on cancers affecting children and young people. This includes funding a paediatric Clinical Trials Unit and a biobank, which collects tissue and blood samples generously donated by young patients involved in research. These critical resources ensure high quality research can be carried out into cancers that affect children and young people.

We’re also gathering together global experts to find out what else might be hindering progress in children’s cancers so we can work together to overcome this.

Why don’t you just allocate more funds to children’s cancer research?

We know that new, better and kinder treatments are needed for children and young people diagnosed with cancer, and we are committed to doing more to make this happen.

But unfortunately, it’s not as simple as spending more money in this area. It’s about spending money in the right way, on the right research.

We know that part of this will come from attracting more high quality research proposals, which is why we’re working with researchers to make this happen.

Right now, if we received more high quality research proposals for work on children’s cancers we could fund them. And if the number of fundable proposals exceeded the amount available to us through restricted donations, we would use money from other budgets to fund them.

What research are you doing to improve things for children with cancer?

Right now, our scientists across the UK are researching cancers that affect children and young people.

Professor Richard Gilbertson in Cambridge is studying medulloblastoma and why some children diagnosed with the disease do better than others. He hopes that understanding more about the disease, and its different subtypes, will help doctors get the right treatment to the right patient.

We’re also working in collaboration with UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, Great Ormond Street Hospital Children’s Charity and Children with Cancer UK to fund and run a research project into children’s kidney cancer. Led by Professor Kathy Pritchard-Jones, the team is looking into a new genetic test that could improve treatment of the disease in children.

And recently, we announced a new funding scheme to create Cancer Research UK Centres of Excellence for brain tumours. Scientists working on adult and childhood brain tumours can apply for this funding.

Are you supporting the ‘Glow Gold’ campaign this year?

Our shops are supporting Childhood Cancer Awareness Month this September by selling gold ribbon pin badges in every store across the UK throughout the month. You can also buy them from our online shop.

We also run other campaigns for Cancer Research UK Kids & Teens in our shops during the year. In fact, in the past year alone, our shop teams have raised more than half a million pounds for Cancer Research UK Kids & Teens.

While we’re unable to turn our shop windows gold, there will be gold ribbon stickers in the windows to increase awareness of Childhood Cancer Awareness Month and to let passers-by know that they can buy gold ribbon pin badges in our stores.

The majority of people who help run our shops are volunteers. And a lot of them have been affected by cancer in some way. They volunteer in our shops as a way of giving something back. If you are visiting one of our shops and have questions about our research on children’s cancers, please understand that our shop volunteers will not be able to answer detailed questions about our research programmes and research spend.

TK Maxx’s Give Up Clothes For Good campaign raises funds for Cancer Research UK Kids & Teens. In the last two weeks of September, there will be posters featuring the gold ribbon in our shop windows highlighting the campaign and that people can donate quality unwanted clothes, accessories and homeware to help beat children’s cancers sooner.

Throughout September we’re also carrying out PR campaigns to promote Childhood Cancer Awareness Month in national and regional media, including turning the BT Tower in London gold between 12pm-2pm and 4pm-7pm on the 1st September.

Why do you feature such a large number of children in your adverts when you don’t fund much research into children’s cancers?

Children, young people and their families feature in our wider advertising campaigns because we want to show the reality of cancer and how it affects peoples’ lives. And we share the stories of people of all ages that have been affected by cancer in some way across our campaigns. Money raised from these campaigns goes to fund research into every type of cancer, including the fundamental biology of cancer.

Everyone who features in our adverts is a real person and has given their permission and support for us to share their story.

What can I do to support Cancer Research UK Kids & Teens?

If you would like to support Cancer Research UK Kids & Teens, you can register for a fundraising booklet, which can be sent to you in the post or downloaded along with some materials to get you started.

If you’d like anything extra, such as balloons or T shirts, please contact our supporter services team on 0300 123 1861. Items to sell and buy as gifts for your family and friends are available from our online shop.

You can also learn more about how to support Cancer Research UK more widely on our website as well as how to get in contact with us.

Dr Ian Walker, Director of Clinical Research at Cancer Research UK.



from Cancer Research UK – Science blog http://ift.tt/2iN1Dno

Today marks the start of Childhood Cancer Awareness Month, which aims to raise awareness around children’s cancers.

Every year, around 4,200 children and young people in the UK (ages 0-24) are diagnosed with cancer. But while survival for this group has improved a lot in the last 40 years, more needs to be done. Not only to increase survival but to ensure that those who do survive, do so with a good quality of life.

September is therefore an important time for us to talk about Cancer Research UK Kids & Teens, a fundraising campaign we set up to support research into new, better and kinder treatments for children and young people with cancer.

Deciding how we approach this challenge isn’t easy, especially with a subject as emotive as childhood cancer. And we’re asked a lot of questions about the ‘how’, ‘why’ and ‘how much’ decisions we make when funding research, and about our campaign.

Here, Dr Ian Walker, Director of Clinical Research at Cancer Research UK, answers some of the most common questions.

How does Cancer Research UK decide what research to fund?

As a charity, we don’t allocate set amounts of money to specific types of cancer. Instead, the amount we spend on different cancers depends on the number of high quality research proposals we get from researchers.

We decide what research to fund based solely on the applications submitted to us by the research community. And that’s why the range of research we fund and the amount we spend on different cancers changes each year.

The process works by scientists or doctors submitting a research proposal to us based on what they would like to work on. This proposal is reviewed by an international panel of experts and then further discussed by a second, separate panel of experts. Each research proposal is judged on its scientific merit, strategic priority, feasibility and the impact it could have for people with cancer.

If the panels decide the research is of the highest quality, that it will increase our understanding of cancer, and ultimately underpins improvements in outcomes for patients, we agree to fund it. You can learn more about the process here and here.

What percentage of the money you spend on research goes towards cancers affecting children and young people?

In 2016/17 we spent £6.1 million on research grants specifically focused on cancers affecting children and young people. This equates to 1.4% of the £428 million we paid out in 2016/17 on charitable activities. You can read more about this in our Annual Report and Accounts.

We also invest a huge amount of money (£112 million in 2016/17) in research to understand the ‘nuts and bolts’ of cancers’ many forms. This includes research into what goes wrong in cancer cells, what their weaknesses are, and how they develop in the first place. This work is relevant to all types of cancer, including those affecting children and young people. And it plays a vital role in the development of new, better and kinder ways to prevent, diagnose and treat cancer.

A large amount of the money we spend outside of research grants is used to give scientists the best facilities and services in which to carry out their life-saving work. This includes establishing and running our Centres, Institutes, biobanks and Clinical Trials Units across the UK. We also co-fund 18 Experimental Cancer Medicine Centres (ECMCs), which bring world-leading doctors, research nurses and technical staff together to develop and test new cancer treatments.

This work includes funding and running a paediatric Clinical Trials Unit, a paediatric ECMC network and a paediatric biobank across the UK.

So while we spent £6.1 million on research specifically into children’s cancers in 2016/17, the money we spend on fundamental cancer research and on creating a world-class research environment will also help us beat children’s cancers sooner.

What happens to any excess funds that are raised but aren’t spent?

Cancer Research UK Kids & Teens is a restricted fundraising campaign. This means 100% of the money raised through the campaign is used to fund research into cancers affecting children and young people. But it doesn’t mean that we always spend all of the donations we receive in a given year.

That’s because we won’t fund sub-standard projects that our expert reviewers believe won’t increase our understanding of cancers that affect children and young people or bring benefits to patients. Instead, any excess funds are carried over to next year, where they are available to fund high quality research proposals we receive that year.

What are you doing to generate more research into children’s cancers?

Cancers affecting children and young people have always been important to us, and we have a strong track record when it comes to working in this area.

But we are still losing too many children to cancer, and some survivors have long-term side effects that can affect them for the rest of their lives.

In order to accelerate progress, we need to see an increase in the number of high quality research proposals we receive. Part of the reason we don’t receive as many research proposals for children’s cancers is because there are fewer researchers working in this area. That’s why we’re working to boost interest among younger researchers across the UK and encourage them to consider working on children’s cancers.

We’ve also been working on the services and facilities required for delivering high quality research on cancers affecting children and young people. This includes funding a paediatric Clinical Trials Unit and a biobank, which collects tissue and blood samples generously donated by young patients involved in research. These critical resources ensure high quality research can be carried out into cancers that affect children and young people.

We’re also gathering together global experts to find out what else might be hindering progress in children’s cancers so we can work together to overcome this.

Why don’t you just allocate more funds to children’s cancer research?

We know that new, better and kinder treatments are needed for children and young people diagnosed with cancer, and we are committed to doing more to make this happen.

But unfortunately, it’s not as simple as spending more money in this area. It’s about spending money in the right way, on the right research.

We know that part of this will come from attracting more high quality research proposals, which is why we’re working with researchers to make this happen.

Right now, if we received more high quality research proposals for work on children’s cancers we could fund them. And if the number of fundable proposals exceeded the amount available to us through restricted donations, we would use money from other budgets to fund them.

What research are you doing to improve things for children with cancer?

Right now, our scientists across the UK are researching cancers that affect children and young people.

Professor Richard Gilbertson in Cambridge is studying medulloblastoma and why some children diagnosed with the disease do better than others. He hopes that understanding more about the disease, and its different subtypes, will help doctors get the right treatment to the right patient.

We’re also working in collaboration with UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, Great Ormond Street Hospital Children’s Charity and Children with Cancer UK to fund and run a research project into children’s kidney cancer. Led by Professor Kathy Pritchard-Jones, the team is looking into a new genetic test that could improve treatment of the disease in children.

And recently, we announced a new funding scheme to create Cancer Research UK Centres of Excellence for brain tumours. Scientists working on adult and childhood brain tumours can apply for this funding.

Are you supporting the ‘Glow Gold’ campaign this year?

Our shops are supporting Childhood Cancer Awareness Month this September by selling gold ribbon pin badges in every store across the UK throughout the month. You can also buy them from our online shop.

We also run other campaigns for Cancer Research UK Kids & Teens in our shops during the year. In fact, in the past year alone, our shop teams have raised more than half a million pounds for Cancer Research UK Kids & Teens.

While we’re unable to turn our shop windows gold, there will be gold ribbon stickers in the windows to increase awareness of Childhood Cancer Awareness Month and to let passers-by know that they can buy gold ribbon pin badges in our stores.

The majority of people who help run our shops are volunteers. And a lot of them have been affected by cancer in some way. They volunteer in our shops as a way of giving something back. If you are visiting one of our shops and have questions about our research on children’s cancers, please understand that our shop volunteers will not be able to answer detailed questions about our research programmes and research spend.

TK Maxx’s Give Up Clothes For Good campaign raises funds for Cancer Research UK Kids & Teens. In the last two weeks of September, there will be posters featuring the gold ribbon in our shop windows highlighting the campaign and that people can donate quality unwanted clothes, accessories and homeware to help beat children’s cancers sooner.

Throughout September we’re also carrying out PR campaigns to promote Childhood Cancer Awareness Month in national and regional media, including turning the BT Tower in London gold between 12pm-2pm and 4pm-7pm on the 1st September.

Why do you feature such a large number of children in your adverts when you don’t fund much research into children’s cancers?

Children, young people and their families feature in our wider advertising campaigns because we want to show the reality of cancer and how it affects peoples’ lives. And we share the stories of people of all ages that have been affected by cancer in some way across our campaigns. Money raised from these campaigns goes to fund research into every type of cancer, including the fundamental biology of cancer.

Everyone who features in our adverts is a real person and has given their permission and support for us to share their story.

What can I do to support Cancer Research UK Kids & Teens?

If you would like to support Cancer Research UK Kids & Teens, you can register for a fundraising booklet, which can be sent to you in the post or downloaded along with some materials to get you started.

If you’d like anything extra, such as balloons or T shirts, please contact our supporter services team on 0300 123 1861. Items to sell and buy as gifts for your family and friends are available from our online shop.

You can also learn more about how to support Cancer Research UK more widely on our website as well as how to get in contact with us.

Dr Ian Walker, Director of Clinical Research at Cancer Research UK.



from Cancer Research UK – Science blog http://ift.tt/2iN1Dno

First hints of water on TRAPPIST-1 planets

This artist’s impression shows the view from the surface of one of the planets in the TRAPPIST-1 system. At least seven planets orbit this ultracool dwarf star 40 light-years from Earth and they are all roughly the same size as the Earth. Several of the planets are at the right distances from their star for liquid water to exist on the surfaces. This artist’s impression is based on the known physical parameters of the planets and stars seen, and uses a vast database of objects in the universe. Image via Hubble.

Via Hubble Space Telescope

An international team of astronomers used the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope to estimate whether there might be water on the seven earth-sized planets orbiting the nearby dwarf star TRAPPIST-1. The results suggest that the outer planets of the system might still harbor substantial amounts of water. This includes the three planets within the habitable zone of the star, lending further weight to the possibility that they may indeed be habitable.

On February 22, 2017 astronomers announced the discovery of seven Earth-sized planets orbiting the ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST-1, 40 light-years away. This makes TRAPPIST-1 the planetary system with the largest number of Earth-sized planets discovered so far.

Following up on the discovery, an international team of scientists led by the Swiss astronomer Vincent Bourrier from the Observatoire de l’Université de Genève, used the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) on the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope to study the amount of ultraviolet radiation received by the individual planets of the system. Blurrier explained:

Ultraviolet radiation is an important factor in the atmospheric evolution of planets. As in our own atmosphere, where ultraviolet sunlight breaks molecules apart, ultraviolet starlight can break water vapor in the atmospheres of exoplanets into hydrogen and oxygen.

A size comparison of the planets of the TRAPPIST-1 system, lined up in order of increasing distance from their host star. The planetary surfaces are portrayed with an artist’s impression of their potential surface features, including water, ice, and atmospheres. Image via NASA/R. Hurt/T. Pyle.

While lower-energy ultraviolet radiation breaks up water molecules — a process called photodissociation — ultraviolet rays with more energy (XUV radiation) and X-rays heat the upper atmosphere of a planet, which allows the products of photodissociation, hydrogen and oxygen, to escape.

As it is very light, hydrogen gas can escape the exoplanets’ atmospheres and be detected around the exoplanets with Hubble, acting as a possible indicator of atmospheric water vapor. The observed amount of ultraviolet radiation emitted by TRAPPIST-1 indeed suggests that the planets could have lost gigantic amounts of water over the course of their history.

This is especially true for the innermost two planets of the system, TRAPPIST-1b and TRAPPIST-1c, which receive the largest amount of ultraviolet energy.

Julien de Wit, from MIT, is co-author of the study. He said:

Our results indicate that atmospheric escape may play an important role in the evolution of these planets.

The inner planets could have lost more than 20 Earth-oceans-worth of water during the last eight billion years. However, the outer planets of the system — including the planets e, f and g which are in the habitable zone — should have lost much less water, suggesting that they could have retained some on their surfaces. The calculated water loss rates as well as geophysical water release rates also favour the idea that the outermost, more massive planets retain their water. However, with the currently available data and telescopes no final conclusion can be drawn on the water content of the planets orbiting TRAPPIST-1. Bourrier said:

While our results suggest that the outer planets are the best candidates to search for water with the upcoming James Webb Space Telescope, they also highlight the need for theoretical studies and complementary observations at all wavelengths to determine the nature of the TRAPPIST-1 planets and their potential habitability.

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Bottom line: Hubble Space Telescope study suggests that there might be substantial amounts of water on the outer earth-sized planets orbiting nearby dwarf star TRAPPIST-1.



from EarthSky http://ift.tt/2eL8NUW

This artist’s impression shows the view from the surface of one of the planets in the TRAPPIST-1 system. At least seven planets orbit this ultracool dwarf star 40 light-years from Earth and they are all roughly the same size as the Earth. Several of the planets are at the right distances from their star for liquid water to exist on the surfaces. This artist’s impression is based on the known physical parameters of the planets and stars seen, and uses a vast database of objects in the universe. Image via Hubble.

Via Hubble Space Telescope

An international team of astronomers used the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope to estimate whether there might be water on the seven earth-sized planets orbiting the nearby dwarf star TRAPPIST-1. The results suggest that the outer planets of the system might still harbor substantial amounts of water. This includes the three planets within the habitable zone of the star, lending further weight to the possibility that they may indeed be habitable.

On February 22, 2017 astronomers announced the discovery of seven Earth-sized planets orbiting the ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST-1, 40 light-years away. This makes TRAPPIST-1 the planetary system with the largest number of Earth-sized planets discovered so far.

Following up on the discovery, an international team of scientists led by the Swiss astronomer Vincent Bourrier from the Observatoire de l’Université de Genève, used the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) on the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope to study the amount of ultraviolet radiation received by the individual planets of the system. Blurrier explained:

Ultraviolet radiation is an important factor in the atmospheric evolution of planets. As in our own atmosphere, where ultraviolet sunlight breaks molecules apart, ultraviolet starlight can break water vapor in the atmospheres of exoplanets into hydrogen and oxygen.

A size comparison of the planets of the TRAPPIST-1 system, lined up in order of increasing distance from their host star. The planetary surfaces are portrayed with an artist’s impression of their potential surface features, including water, ice, and atmospheres. Image via NASA/R. Hurt/T. Pyle.

While lower-energy ultraviolet radiation breaks up water molecules — a process called photodissociation — ultraviolet rays with more energy (XUV radiation) and X-rays heat the upper atmosphere of a planet, which allows the products of photodissociation, hydrogen and oxygen, to escape.

As it is very light, hydrogen gas can escape the exoplanets’ atmospheres and be detected around the exoplanets with Hubble, acting as a possible indicator of atmospheric water vapor. The observed amount of ultraviolet radiation emitted by TRAPPIST-1 indeed suggests that the planets could have lost gigantic amounts of water over the course of their history.

This is especially true for the innermost two planets of the system, TRAPPIST-1b and TRAPPIST-1c, which receive the largest amount of ultraviolet energy.

Julien de Wit, from MIT, is co-author of the study. He said:

Our results indicate that atmospheric escape may play an important role in the evolution of these planets.

The inner planets could have lost more than 20 Earth-oceans-worth of water during the last eight billion years. However, the outer planets of the system — including the planets e, f and g which are in the habitable zone — should have lost much less water, suggesting that they could have retained some on their surfaces. The calculated water loss rates as well as geophysical water release rates also favour the idea that the outermost, more massive planets retain their water. However, with the currently available data and telescopes no final conclusion can be drawn on the water content of the planets orbiting TRAPPIST-1. Bourrier said:

While our results suggest that the outer planets are the best candidates to search for water with the upcoming James Webb Space Telescope, they also highlight the need for theoretical studies and complementary observations at all wavelengths to determine the nature of the TRAPPIST-1 planets and their potential habitability.

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Bottom line: Hubble Space Telescope study suggests that there might be substantial amounts of water on the outer earth-sized planets orbiting nearby dwarf star TRAPPIST-1.



from EarthSky http://ift.tt/2eL8NUW

Breaking the Ice: Inside the Coast Guard’s Polar Icebreaker

Step inside the U.S. Coast Guard's polar icebreaker. You've never seen a crib like this before.

from http://ift.tt/2iNy595
Step inside the U.S. Coast Guard's polar icebreaker. You've never seen a crib like this before.

from http://ift.tt/2iNy595

September’s birthstone is the sapphire

Raw blue sapphires. Image via Amy Kozak.

The sapphire, birthstone for September, is a relative of July’s birthstone, ruby. Like ruby, it is a form of the mineral corundum, a normally drab grey mineral. Red corundum is called the ruby, while all other gem quality forms of corundum are called sapphires.

Typically, sapphires appear as blue stones, ranging from very pale blue to deep indigo, due to the presence of small amounts of titanium and iron within the crystal structure. The most valued shade of blue is the medium-deep cornflower blue. Sapphires also occur in other natural colors and tints – colorless, gray, yellow, pale pink, orange, green, violet and brown – called fancy sapphires. These different colors are caused by different kinds of impurities within the crystal. For example, yellow sapphires get their color from ferric iron, and colorless gems have no contaminants.

The Logan Sapphire Brooch, the second largest sapphire known (at 422.99 carats), is on display at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. Image via Andrew Bossi

The biggest source of sapphires world-wide is Australia, especially New South Wales and Queensland. Found in alluvial deposits of weathered basalt, Australian sapphires typically are blue stones with a dark and inky appearance. Kashmir, in India, used to be a well-known source of the cornflower-blue stones. In the United States, a major source is the Yogo Gulch Mine in Montana that mostly yields small stones for industrial use.

The word sapphire has its roots in several ancient languages: the Arabic safir, the Latin sapphirus (meaning blue), and the Greek word sappheiros for the island of Sappherine in the Arabian Sea where sapphires were found in ancient Grecian times. Ancient Persians called sapphire the “Celestial Stone.” It was the gem of Apollo, Greek God of prophesy and was worn by worshipers visiting his shrine in Delphi to seek his help. It was used by ancient Etruscans as far back as the 7th century B.C.

The sapphire was said to represent the purity of the soul. Before and during the Middle Ages, it was worn by priests as protection from impure thoughts and temptations of the flesh. Medieval kings of Europe valued these stones for rings and brooches, believing that it protected them from harm and envy. Warriors presented their young wives with sapphire necklaces so they would remain faithful. It was believed that the stone’s color would darken if worn by an adulterer or adulteress, or by an unworthy person.

Sapphires were once believed to be protection against snakes. It was said that if poisonous reptiles and spiders were placed in a jar containing the stone, the creatures would immediately die. The French of the 13th century believed that sapphire transformed stupidity to wisdom, and irritability to good temper.

One of the most famous sapphires rests on the Imperial State Crown, worn by Queen Victoria in 1838. It resides in the British Crown Jewels in the Tower of London. This gem is called the St. Edward’s Sapphire because it once belonged to Edward the Confessor, who wore the stone on a ring during his coronation in 1042.

Find out about the birthstones for the other months of the year:
January birthstone
February birthstone
March birthstone
April birthstone
May birthstone
July birthstone
August birthstone
September birthstone
October birthstone
November birthstone
December birthstone

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from EarthSky http://ift.tt/2iNJtlh

Raw blue sapphires. Image via Amy Kozak.

The sapphire, birthstone for September, is a relative of July’s birthstone, ruby. Like ruby, it is a form of the mineral corundum, a normally drab grey mineral. Red corundum is called the ruby, while all other gem quality forms of corundum are called sapphires.

Typically, sapphires appear as blue stones, ranging from very pale blue to deep indigo, due to the presence of small amounts of titanium and iron within the crystal structure. The most valued shade of blue is the medium-deep cornflower blue. Sapphires also occur in other natural colors and tints – colorless, gray, yellow, pale pink, orange, green, violet and brown – called fancy sapphires. These different colors are caused by different kinds of impurities within the crystal. For example, yellow sapphires get their color from ferric iron, and colorless gems have no contaminants.

The Logan Sapphire Brooch, the second largest sapphire known (at 422.99 carats), is on display at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. Image via Andrew Bossi

The biggest source of sapphires world-wide is Australia, especially New South Wales and Queensland. Found in alluvial deposits of weathered basalt, Australian sapphires typically are blue stones with a dark and inky appearance. Kashmir, in India, used to be a well-known source of the cornflower-blue stones. In the United States, a major source is the Yogo Gulch Mine in Montana that mostly yields small stones for industrial use.

The word sapphire has its roots in several ancient languages: the Arabic safir, the Latin sapphirus (meaning blue), and the Greek word sappheiros for the island of Sappherine in the Arabian Sea where sapphires were found in ancient Grecian times. Ancient Persians called sapphire the “Celestial Stone.” It was the gem of Apollo, Greek God of prophesy and was worn by worshipers visiting his shrine in Delphi to seek his help. It was used by ancient Etruscans as far back as the 7th century B.C.

The sapphire was said to represent the purity of the soul. Before and during the Middle Ages, it was worn by priests as protection from impure thoughts and temptations of the flesh. Medieval kings of Europe valued these stones for rings and brooches, believing that it protected them from harm and envy. Warriors presented their young wives with sapphire necklaces so they would remain faithful. It was believed that the stone’s color would darken if worn by an adulterer or adulteress, or by an unworthy person.

Sapphires were once believed to be protection against snakes. It was said that if poisonous reptiles and spiders were placed in a jar containing the stone, the creatures would immediately die. The French of the 13th century believed that sapphire transformed stupidity to wisdom, and irritability to good temper.

One of the most famous sapphires rests on the Imperial State Crown, worn by Queen Victoria in 1838. It resides in the British Crown Jewels in the Tower of London. This gem is called the St. Edward’s Sapphire because it once belonged to Edward the Confessor, who wore the stone on a ring during his coronation in 1042.

Find out about the birthstones for the other months of the year:
January birthstone
February birthstone
March birthstone
April birthstone
May birthstone
July birthstone
August birthstone
September birthstone
October birthstone
November birthstone
December birthstone

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Venus and bright stars, east before sunup

Photo taken August 30, 2017 by Tom Wildoner. Visit Tom at LeisurelyScientist.com. He took the photo from the U.S. state of Pennsylvannia, but Venus and these stars can be seen from around the world now, in the direction of sunrise, before the sun comes up.

Tech Specs: Canon 6D, Canon EF17-40mm f/4L USM, tripod mounted, 3.2 second shot, ISO 3200, f/4 and 24mm. Date: August 30, 2017 Image Location: 41.048399, -75.747473 (cut and paste into Google).



from EarthSky http://ift.tt/2wsxUDy

Photo taken August 30, 2017 by Tom Wildoner. Visit Tom at LeisurelyScientist.com. He took the photo from the U.S. state of Pennsylvannia, but Venus and these stars can be seen from around the world now, in the direction of sunrise, before the sun comes up.

Tech Specs: Canon 6D, Canon EF17-40mm f/4L USM, tripod mounted, 3.2 second shot, ISO 3200, f/4 and 24mm. Date: August 30, 2017 Image Location: 41.048399, -75.747473 (cut and paste into Google).



from EarthSky http://ift.tt/2wsxUDy

Pluto in moon’s direction September 1

Tonight – September 1, 2017 – finds both the moon and the dwarf planet Pluto in front of the constellation Sagittarius the Archer. Will you see Pluto near tonight’s waxing gibbous moon? No way. It’ll be difficult enough to spot the 3rd-magnitude star Albaldah (Pi Sagittarii) in the moon’s glare, or the Teapot asterism to the south of the moon.

Both the star Albaldah and the Teapot are easily visible in a dark country sky on a moonless night. Pluto, on the other hand, is nearly 2,000 times fainter than the faintest star that’s visible to the unaided eye. But you can use tonight’s moon to get a ballpark idea of Pluto’s place in the starry sky.

Sky chart of the constellation Sagittarius via the International Astronomical Union (IAU). We label the star Albaldah (Pi Sagittarii) to the upper left of the Teapot.

If you can locate the star Albaldah (Pi Sagittarii) on a dark, moonless night (see above sky chart), then you’ll have an even better feel for Pluto’s position in front of the constellation Sagittarius. Another nearby star – the “bright” binocular star HP 179201 – shines closer yet to Pluto, but this 6.4-magnitude star is still some 1,600 times brighter than Pluto (magnitude: 14.4). Click here for a sky chart of HP 179201, remembering that the star’s name won’t appear unless you place the cursor on it. Click here for more information on Pluto and a high precision sky chart.

Even the experienced practitioner of the telescope will find it hard to catch Pluto. You need a 14-inch or larger telescope to view Pluto as a dim speck of light amid dim specks of light. But if you can at least spot the star Albaldah on a dark night, you’ll have a good idea of where Pluto resides in front of the backdrop stars.

Tonight – September 1, 2017 – the moon and Pluto are both in front of Sagittarius, one of the 13 constellations making up the zodiac.



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Tonight – September 1, 2017 – finds both the moon and the dwarf planet Pluto in front of the constellation Sagittarius the Archer. Will you see Pluto near tonight’s waxing gibbous moon? No way. It’ll be difficult enough to spot the 3rd-magnitude star Albaldah (Pi Sagittarii) in the moon’s glare, or the Teapot asterism to the south of the moon.

Both the star Albaldah and the Teapot are easily visible in a dark country sky on a moonless night. Pluto, on the other hand, is nearly 2,000 times fainter than the faintest star that’s visible to the unaided eye. But you can use tonight’s moon to get a ballpark idea of Pluto’s place in the starry sky.

Sky chart of the constellation Sagittarius via the International Astronomical Union (IAU). We label the star Albaldah (Pi Sagittarii) to the upper left of the Teapot.

If you can locate the star Albaldah (Pi Sagittarii) on a dark, moonless night (see above sky chart), then you’ll have an even better feel for Pluto’s position in front of the constellation Sagittarius. Another nearby star – the “bright” binocular star HP 179201 – shines closer yet to Pluto, but this 6.4-magnitude star is still some 1,600 times brighter than Pluto (magnitude: 14.4). Click here for a sky chart of HP 179201, remembering that the star’s name won’t appear unless you place the cursor on it. Click here for more information on Pluto and a high precision sky chart.

Even the experienced practitioner of the telescope will find it hard to catch Pluto. You need a 14-inch or larger telescope to view Pluto as a dim speck of light amid dim specks of light. But if you can at least spot the star Albaldah on a dark night, you’ll have a good idea of where Pluto resides in front of the backdrop stars.

Tonight – September 1, 2017 – the moon and Pluto are both in front of Sagittarius, one of the 13 constellations making up the zodiac.



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Watch for September’s full moon

Harvest Moon with Century Saguaro (over 100 years old) against the Santa Catalina Mountains of southern Arizona, via Randall Kayfes.

Full moon happens at the same instant worldwide, on September 6, 2017 at 7:03 UTC; translate to your time zone. Here, in the contiguous United States, the moon turns precisely full on September 6 at 3:03 a.m. EDT, 2:03 a.m. CDT, 1:03 a.m. MDT and 12:03 PDT. That’s why we say the full moon falls on the night of September 5, for the Americas.

Is this September full moon the Harvest Moon? Not precisely, but it’ll act like one.

More often than not, the September full moon is the Northern Hemisphere’s Harvest Moon. The Harvest Moon is usually defined as the full moon closest to the autumn equinox, which – in the Northern Hemisphere – comes on or near September 22 each year.

Last year’s Harvest Moon fell in September. Next year’s Harvest Moon will, too.

But, in 2017, the September 6 full moon comes too early to be the Northern Hemisphere’s official Harvest Moon, according to the most widely accepted definition of the term. That’s because the full moon of October 5, 2017, will fall closer to this year’s September 22 equinox. The October 2017 full moon will be this year’s Harvest Moon, while the September 5-6 full moon will carry its ordinary monthly full moon name of Fruit Moon in the Northern Hemisphere (and Worm Moon, Lenten Moon, Crow Moon, Sugar Moon, Chaste Moon or Sap Moon in the Southern Hemisphere). Read more about full moon names.

However, in most respects, the September 2017 and October 2017 full moons can be regarded as Harvest Moon co-stars. By that we mean that both have the characteristics of a Harvest Moon. The primary Harvest Moon characteristic has to do with the moonrise. On the average, the moon rises some 50 minutes later with each passing day. Around the time of the full Harvest Moon, the lag time between successive moonrises is reduced to a yearly low.

In 2017, there’s no appreciable difference between the lag in moonrise times associated with September and October full moons. In both of these months, the moon rises a shorter-than-usual time after sunset for several evenings in a row, following the date of full moon.

Read more about the Harvest Moon

As the sun sets at and near the autumn equinox, the angle of the ecliptic – or sun and moon’s path – makes a narrow angle with the horizon. Image via classicalastronomy.com.

The narrow angle of the ecliptic means the moon rises noticeably farther north (left) on the horizon. For a few to several days after the full Harvest Moon, there is no long period of darkness between sunset and moonrise. Image via classicalastronomy.com.

A full moon is always opposite the sun. That’s why it looks full to us. At full moon, the moon and sun are on a line, with Earth in between. It’s as though Earth is the fulcrum of a seesaw, and the moon and sun are sitting on either end of the seesaw. So as the sun sets in the west, the full moon rises. When the sun is below our feet at midnight, the full moon is highest in the sky. When the sun rises again at dawn, the full moon is setting.

As the moon orbits Earth, it changes phase in an orderly way. Follow these links to understand the various phases of the moon.

Four keys to understanding moon phases

Where’s the moon? Waxing crescent
Where’s the moon? First quarter
Where’s the moon? Waxing gibbous
What’s special about a full moon?
Where’s the moon? Waning gibbous
Where’s the moon? Last quarter
Where’s the moon? Waning crescent
Where’s the moon? New phase

Bottom line: A full moon looks full because it’s opposite Earth from the sun, showing us its fully lighted hemisphere or day side. The September 5-6, 2017 full moon isn’t a true Harvest Moon, but it acts like one.

Can you tell me the full moon names?

Moon in 2017: Phases, cycles, eclipses, supermoons and more



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Harvest Moon with Century Saguaro (over 100 years old) against the Santa Catalina Mountains of southern Arizona, via Randall Kayfes.

Full moon happens at the same instant worldwide, on September 6, 2017 at 7:03 UTC; translate to your time zone. Here, in the contiguous United States, the moon turns precisely full on September 6 at 3:03 a.m. EDT, 2:03 a.m. CDT, 1:03 a.m. MDT and 12:03 PDT. That’s why we say the full moon falls on the night of September 5, for the Americas.

Is this September full moon the Harvest Moon? Not precisely, but it’ll act like one.

More often than not, the September full moon is the Northern Hemisphere’s Harvest Moon. The Harvest Moon is usually defined as the full moon closest to the autumn equinox, which – in the Northern Hemisphere – comes on or near September 22 each year.

Last year’s Harvest Moon fell in September. Next year’s Harvest Moon will, too.

But, in 2017, the September 6 full moon comes too early to be the Northern Hemisphere’s official Harvest Moon, according to the most widely accepted definition of the term. That’s because the full moon of October 5, 2017, will fall closer to this year’s September 22 equinox. The October 2017 full moon will be this year’s Harvest Moon, while the September 5-6 full moon will carry its ordinary monthly full moon name of Fruit Moon in the Northern Hemisphere (and Worm Moon, Lenten Moon, Crow Moon, Sugar Moon, Chaste Moon or Sap Moon in the Southern Hemisphere). Read more about full moon names.

However, in most respects, the September 2017 and October 2017 full moons can be regarded as Harvest Moon co-stars. By that we mean that both have the characteristics of a Harvest Moon. The primary Harvest Moon characteristic has to do with the moonrise. On the average, the moon rises some 50 minutes later with each passing day. Around the time of the full Harvest Moon, the lag time between successive moonrises is reduced to a yearly low.

In 2017, there’s no appreciable difference between the lag in moonrise times associated with September and October full moons. In both of these months, the moon rises a shorter-than-usual time after sunset for several evenings in a row, following the date of full moon.

Read more about the Harvest Moon

As the sun sets at and near the autumn equinox, the angle of the ecliptic – or sun and moon’s path – makes a narrow angle with the horizon. Image via classicalastronomy.com.

The narrow angle of the ecliptic means the moon rises noticeably farther north (left) on the horizon. For a few to several days after the full Harvest Moon, there is no long period of darkness between sunset and moonrise. Image via classicalastronomy.com.

A full moon is always opposite the sun. That’s why it looks full to us. At full moon, the moon and sun are on a line, with Earth in between. It’s as though Earth is the fulcrum of a seesaw, and the moon and sun are sitting on either end of the seesaw. So as the sun sets in the west, the full moon rises. When the sun is below our feet at midnight, the full moon is highest in the sky. When the sun rises again at dawn, the full moon is setting.

As the moon orbits Earth, it changes phase in an orderly way. Follow these links to understand the various phases of the moon.

Four keys to understanding moon phases

Where’s the moon? Waxing crescent
Where’s the moon? First quarter
Where’s the moon? Waxing gibbous
What’s special about a full moon?
Where’s the moon? Waning gibbous
Where’s the moon? Last quarter
Where’s the moon? Waning crescent
Where’s the moon? New phase

Bottom line: A full moon looks full because it’s opposite Earth from the sun, showing us its fully lighted hemisphere or day side. The September 5-6, 2017 full moon isn’t a true Harvest Moon, but it acts like one.

Can you tell me the full moon names?

Moon in 2017: Phases, cycles, eclipses, supermoons and more



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