Everything you need to know: Groundhog Day 2016

Ah, Groundhog Day. On February 2, 2016, Punxsutawney Phil – called the world’s most beloved seasonal prognosticator by his handlers in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania – will look for his shadow. If it’s sunny out, and Phil sees his shadow, then – according to tradition – we’re in for six more weeks of winter. A cloudy Groundhog Day is supposed to forecast an early spring. Groundhog Day, a U.S. and Canadian tradition, comes every year on February 2. It has its roots in astronomy, in the sense that it’s a seasonal festival, tied to the movement of Earth around the sun. It’s a great excuse to go outside and enjoy some revelry during the winter months. Follow the links below to learn more.

Punxsutawney Phil, the great weather prognosticator.

Groundhog Day has its roots in astronomy.

Groundhog Day in various cultures.

One final note.

… the great weather prognosticator. See Phil on the far left? Image via Wikimedia Commons.

Punxsutawney Phil, the great weather prognosticator. We all know the rules of Groundhog Day. On February 2, a groundhog is said to forecast weather by looking for his shadow. If it’s sunny out, and he sees it, we’re in for six more weeks of winter. On the other hand, a cloudy Groundhog Day is supposed to forecast an early spring.

Of course, it can’t be cloudy, or sunny, everywhere at once. And many towns in the U.S. and Canada have their own local groundhogs and local traditions for Groundhog Day.

But by far the most famous of the February 2 shadow-seeking groundhogs is Punxsutawney Phil in Punxsutawney, in western Pennsylvania, which calls itself:

… original home of the great weather prognosticator, His Majesty, the Punxsutawney Groundhog.

Since 1887, members of the Punxsutawney Groundhog Club have held public celebrations of Groundhog Day. Punxsutawney is where Bill Murray was in the movie Groundhog Day. From the looks of things … a good time is had by all.

How accurate is Phil? NOAA’s National Climatic Data Center says Phil’s forecasts have shown no predictive skill in recent years.

AccuWeather, on the the hand, says the groundhog is a better-than-average predictor, with an 80 percent accuracy rate.

Enjoying EarthSky so far? Sign up for our free daily newsletter today!

Groundhog Day has its roots in astronomy. What you might not know is that Groundhog Day is really an astronomical holiday.

It’s an event that takes place in Earth’s orbit around the sun, as we move between the solstices and equinoxes. In other words, Groundhog Day falls more or less midway between the December solstice and the March equinox. Each cross-quarter day is actually a collection of dates, and various traditions celebrate various holidays at this time. February 2 is the year’s first cross-quarter day.

Of course, the division of the year into segments is common to many cultures. Our ancestors were more aware of the sun’s movements across the sky than we are, since their plantings and harvests depended on it.

Neo-pagan wheel of the year. Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Groundhog Day in various cultures. In the ancient Celtic calendar, the year is also divided into quarter days (equinoxes and solstices) and cross-quarter days on a great neopagan wheel of the year. Thus, just as February 2 is marked by the celebration of Candlemas by some Christians, such as the Roman Catholics, in contemporary paganism, this day is called Imbolc and is considered a traditional time for initiations.

The celebration of Groundhog Day came to America along with immigrants from Great Britain and Germany. The tradition can be traced to early Christians in Europe, when a hedgehog was said to look for his shadow on Candlemas Day.

Try this old English rhyme:

If Candlemas Day be fair and bright, winter will have another flight. But if it be dark with clouds and rain, winter is gone and will not come again.

Or here’s another old saying:

Half your wood and half your hay, you should have on Candlemas Day.

In Germany it used to be said:

A shepherd would rather see a wolf enter his stable on Candlemas Day than see the sun shine.

There, a badger was said to watch for his shadow.

A friend on Facebook said that, in Portugal, people have a poem about February 2 related to the Lady of Candles. Here’s the poem:

Quando a Senhora das Candeias está a rir está o inverno para vir, quando está a chorar está o inverno a acabar. [Translation: If she smiles (Sun) the winter is yet to come, if she cries (Rain) the winter is over]

Image Credit: WoodTV8

One final note. It’s supposed to be bad luck to leave your Christmas decorations up after Groundhog Day.

The National Geographic Society once studied the groundhog and found him right only one out of every three times. But what the heck? It’s all in good fun.

So whether you celebrate with a real groundhog and a real shadow – or just pause a moment on this day to reflect on the passing of the seasons.

Bottom line: This U.S. and Canadian tradition comes every year on February 2. It has its roots in astronomy, in the sense that it’s a seasonal festival, tied to the movement of Earth around the sun. In the U.S. and Canada, we call it Groundhog Day – a great excuse to go outside and enjoy some revelry during the winter months.

from EarthSky http://ift.tt/1o1Yu0E

Ah, Groundhog Day. On February 2, 2016, Punxsutawney Phil – called the world’s most beloved seasonal prognosticator by his handlers in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania – will look for his shadow. If it’s sunny out, and Phil sees his shadow, then – according to tradition – we’re in for six more weeks of winter. A cloudy Groundhog Day is supposed to forecast an early spring. Groundhog Day, a U.S. and Canadian tradition, comes every year on February 2. It has its roots in astronomy, in the sense that it’s a seasonal festival, tied to the movement of Earth around the sun. It’s a great excuse to go outside and enjoy some revelry during the winter months. Follow the links below to learn more.

Punxsutawney Phil, the great weather prognosticator.

Groundhog Day has its roots in astronomy.

Groundhog Day in various cultures.

One final note.

… the great weather prognosticator. See Phil on the far left? Image via Wikimedia Commons.

Punxsutawney Phil, the great weather prognosticator. We all know the rules of Groundhog Day. On February 2, a groundhog is said to forecast weather by looking for his shadow. If it’s sunny out, and he sees it, we’re in for six more weeks of winter. On the other hand, a cloudy Groundhog Day is supposed to forecast an early spring.

Of course, it can’t be cloudy, or sunny, everywhere at once. And many towns in the U.S. and Canada have their own local groundhogs and local traditions for Groundhog Day.

But by far the most famous of the February 2 shadow-seeking groundhogs is Punxsutawney Phil in Punxsutawney, in western Pennsylvania, which calls itself:

… original home of the great weather prognosticator, His Majesty, the Punxsutawney Groundhog.

Since 1887, members of the Punxsutawney Groundhog Club have held public celebrations of Groundhog Day. Punxsutawney is where Bill Murray was in the movie Groundhog Day. From the looks of things … a good time is had by all.

How accurate is Phil? NOAA’s National Climatic Data Center says Phil’s forecasts have shown no predictive skill in recent years.

AccuWeather, on the the hand, says the groundhog is a better-than-average predictor, with an 80 percent accuracy rate.

Enjoying EarthSky so far? Sign up for our free daily newsletter today!

Groundhog Day has its roots in astronomy. What you might not know is that Groundhog Day is really an astronomical holiday.

It’s an event that takes place in Earth’s orbit around the sun, as we move between the solstices and equinoxes. In other words, Groundhog Day falls more or less midway between the December solstice and the March equinox. Each cross-quarter day is actually a collection of dates, and various traditions celebrate various holidays at this time. February 2 is the year’s first cross-quarter day.

Of course, the division of the year into segments is common to many cultures. Our ancestors were more aware of the sun’s movements across the sky than we are, since their plantings and harvests depended on it.

Neo-pagan wheel of the year. Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Groundhog Day in various cultures. In the ancient Celtic calendar, the year is also divided into quarter days (equinoxes and solstices) and cross-quarter days on a great neopagan wheel of the year. Thus, just as February 2 is marked by the celebration of Candlemas by some Christians, such as the Roman Catholics, in contemporary paganism, this day is called Imbolc and is considered a traditional time for initiations.

The celebration of Groundhog Day came to America along with immigrants from Great Britain and Germany. The tradition can be traced to early Christians in Europe, when a hedgehog was said to look for his shadow on Candlemas Day.

Try this old English rhyme:

If Candlemas Day be fair and bright, winter will have another flight. But if it be dark with clouds and rain, winter is gone and will not come again.

Or here’s another old saying:

Half your wood and half your hay, you should have on Candlemas Day.

In Germany it used to be said:

A shepherd would rather see a wolf enter his stable on Candlemas Day than see the sun shine.

There, a badger was said to watch for his shadow.

A friend on Facebook said that, in Portugal, people have a poem about February 2 related to the Lady of Candles. Here’s the poem:

Quando a Senhora das Candeias está a rir está o inverno para vir, quando está a chorar está o inverno a acabar. [Translation: If she smiles (Sun) the winter is yet to come, if she cries (Rain) the winter is over]

Image Credit: WoodTV8

One final note. It’s supposed to be bad luck to leave your Christmas decorations up after Groundhog Day.

The National Geographic Society once studied the groundhog and found him right only one out of every three times. But what the heck? It’s all in good fun.

So whether you celebrate with a real groundhog and a real shadow – or just pause a moment on this day to reflect on the passing of the seasons.

Bottom line: This U.S. and Canadian tradition comes every year on February 2. It has its roots in astronomy, in the sense that it’s a seasonal festival, tied to the movement of Earth around the sun. In the U.S. and Canada, we call it Groundhog Day – a great excuse to go outside and enjoy some revelry during the winter months.

from EarthSky http://ift.tt/1o1Yu0E

Two stars in Scorpius are a harbinger of spring

On this Groundhog Day – February 2, 2016 – look east before dawn for another sign of spring. It’s the two stars that represent the Stinger in the constellation Scorpius the Scorpion. From mid-northern latitudes, in the cold dawn of February, the sighting of these stars announces that the winter landscape is about to awaken from its long dormant slumber: that spring is nearly here. You’ll need a clear, unobstructed view to the south to southeast to spot Scorpius’ stinger stars – Shaula and Lesath – flickering by the horizon. If you miss seeing these stars tomorrow, or the next day, try again later in February.

If you’re in the Northern Hemisphere, Shaula and Lesath will come over your southeastern horizon before dawn sometimes this month. They’re a hopeful sign that spring is coming.

Image credit: rkramer62

For the Pawnee, who roamed the prairie lands of Kansas and Nebraska, the sky was a calendar, and the stars foretold the change of seasons. The Pawnee saw a snake in the stars forming the front part of Scorpius. But the stars of the stinger were, for the Pawnee, a pair of ducks.

It’s thought that the Pawnee called the stars on the Scorpion’s stinger the Swimming Duck stars. When the Swimming Ducks came into view in the southeast – prior to daybreak in the month of February – the Pawnee recognized that it was time to begin planting ceremonies. In other words, they were a sign of hope, and a sign that spring was on its way.

These stars are now coming into view at or shortly before dawn.

In some respects, we can regard the search for the Swimming Duck stars as a Pawnee version of Groundhog Day.

The return of the Swimming Ducks to the morning sky signaled the first stirrings of the great plains from hibernation. Shaula and Lesath’s presence over the horizon was symbolic of waterfowl breaking through the ice.

As we approach the end of winter, Shaula and Lesath will appear higher each morning in the southeast before dawn. Their morning appearance tells us that the prairie is about to awaken to the rolling thunders of spring.

By the way, for us today, the stars at the end of the Scorpion’s tail are also known as the Cat’s Eyes. They’re easy to spot at the J-shaped star pattern that forms the constellation Scorpius.

Bottom line: Go ahead. Treat yourself to something beautiful, and hopeful. Get up early on some morning this February, and look for the Scorpion’s stinger stars near the horizon. If you’re lucky, you might behold them – a first glimmer of spring!

Enjoying EarthSky so far? Sign up for our free daily newsletter today!

Antares: Heart of the Scorpion

February 2016 guide to the five visible planets

from EarthSky http://ift.tt/16kLBGt

On this Groundhog Day – February 2, 2016 – look east before dawn for another sign of spring. It’s the two stars that represent the Stinger in the constellation Scorpius the Scorpion. From mid-northern latitudes, in the cold dawn of February, the sighting of these stars announces that the winter landscape is about to awaken from its long dormant slumber: that spring is nearly here. You’ll need a clear, unobstructed view to the south to southeast to spot Scorpius’ stinger stars – Shaula and Lesath – flickering by the horizon. If you miss seeing these stars tomorrow, or the next day, try again later in February.

If you’re in the Northern Hemisphere, Shaula and Lesath will come over your southeastern horizon before dawn sometimes this month. They’re a hopeful sign that spring is coming.

Image credit: rkramer62

For the Pawnee, who roamed the prairie lands of Kansas and Nebraska, the sky was a calendar, and the stars foretold the change of seasons. The Pawnee saw a snake in the stars forming the front part of Scorpius. But the stars of the stinger were, for the Pawnee, a pair of ducks.

It’s thought that the Pawnee called the stars on the Scorpion’s stinger the Swimming Duck stars. When the Swimming Ducks came into view in the southeast – prior to daybreak in the month of February – the Pawnee recognized that it was time to begin planting ceremonies. In other words, they were a sign of hope, and a sign that spring was on its way.

These stars are now coming into view at or shortly before dawn.

In some respects, we can regard the search for the Swimming Duck stars as a Pawnee version of Groundhog Day.

The return of the Swimming Ducks to the morning sky signaled the first stirrings of the great plains from hibernation. Shaula and Lesath’s presence over the horizon was symbolic of waterfowl breaking through the ice.

As we approach the end of winter, Shaula and Lesath will appear higher each morning in the southeast before dawn. Their morning appearance tells us that the prairie is about to awaken to the rolling thunders of spring.

By the way, for us today, the stars at the end of the Scorpion’s tail are also known as the Cat’s Eyes. They’re easy to spot at the J-shaped star pattern that forms the constellation Scorpius.

Bottom line: Go ahead. Treat yourself to something beautiful, and hopeful. Get up early on some morning this February, and look for the Scorpion’s stinger stars near the horizon. If you’re lucky, you might behold them – a first glimmer of spring!

Enjoying EarthSky so far? Sign up for our free daily newsletter today!

Antares: Heart of the Scorpion

February 2016 guide to the five visible planets

from EarthSky http://ift.tt/16kLBGt

February 2016 Open thread [Deltoid]

More thread.

from ScienceBlogs http://ift.tt/1o1BE9q

More thread.

from ScienceBlogs http://ift.tt/1o1BE9q

Grand Challenge seven: kill cancer cells using new ‘smart drugs’

This entry is part 8 of 8 in the series Grand Challenge

In October 2015 we launched the Cancer Research UK Grand Challenge – a £100m scheme to tackle seven of the biggest challenges in understanding and treating cancer.  

And in a series of posts we’re exploring each of the seven Grand Challenge questions set by a panel of the world’s leading cancer experts. The seventh of our Grand Challenge topics is posing the question: can we kill cancer cells in patients using new ‘smart drugs’?

The Hatton Garden jewel heist of 2015 has been described as “the biggest burglary in English legal history”.

Those responsible successfully entered an underground vault, emptying 72 safety deposit boxes and walking away with £14 million worth of jewels.

But what does gaining access to a vault and emptying safety deposit boxes have to do with cancer? Surprisingly, more than you’d think.

Our final Grand Challenge is the ultimate cellular heist, attempting to sneak the latest ‘smart drugs’ – or macromolecules if we’re being technical – inside the body so they can take out cancer cells.

Big drugs, big potential

Dr Rick Klausner, former Director of the US National Cancer Institute and chair of our Grand Challenge Advisory Panel, describes macromolecules as “machines that have been produced through evolution”.

They are large molecules, pieced together from smaller building blocks. And there are four main types:

• Nucleic acids – like DNA
• Proteins – for example antibodies
• Carbohydrates – things like starch
• Lipids – things like fats and cholesterol

Each type of macromolecule carries out a wide range of jobs inside cells. They’re essential for growth and survival – without them, cells would die.

And if they become faulty or damaged, things can go wrong.

For example, abnormal build up of the protein Beta-amyloid is found in patients with Alzheimer’s disease, while faults in DNA can lead to cancer.

But macromolecules can also be engineered to help combat diseases. And some have been used as treatments for cancer.

Is bigger better?

Most drugs used to treat cancer patients aren’t macromolecules – they’re much smaller, so they have no trouble getting inside cells.

And if those cells are cancer cells these drugs can do an effective job of killing the tumour cells.

But they have a downside – these drugs can also get inside healthy cells, damaging and killing them as well as cancer cells.

That’s why patients’ hair often falls out when they’re being given chemotherapy treatment. The drugs can’t tell a fast growing cancer cell from a fast growing healthy cell, like a hair cell.

We need to develop macromolecule drugs that can get inside cancer cells, where they can do a lot of damage – Dr Rick Klausner

This is one reason why researchers are turning to macromolecules. They know that in some circumstances these molecules have the potential to target and kill only cancer cells.

Some macromolecule drugs – including antibodies like rituximab (Mabthera), which is used to treat Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma, and trastuzumab (Herceptin), used for HER2 positive breast cancer patients – have been a great success.

But these treatments have been successful because they don’t need to get inside the cancer cells. They work by targeting and killing cancer cells that have specific molecules on their cell surface.

“These drugs are good, but the problem is they don’t go inside cancer cells,” says Klausner. “They work on the cell surface, messing it up and killing the cell that way.”

So if a researcher wanted to target a faulty molecule inside cells, these macromolecule drugs wouldn’t be up to the job.

If we imagine all cells are like banks – and the cancer cells have their vaults full of faulty molecules we want to target – then the drugs we have work in one of two ways:

1. Smaller drugs can get inside every bank, and while some will hit a full vault they may also hit some where there’s no cash inside.
2. Or, we have certain macromolecule drugs – like antibodies – that only work if there’s an ATM built into the bank’s walls that has cash hanging out of it.

“This isn’t enough,” says Klausner. “We need to develop macromolecule drugs that can get inside cancer cells, where they can do a lot of damage.” But why – what’s the advantage of macromolecules that can get inside cells over the drugs and antibodies we already have?

“In the lab we have tools that allow us to develop macromolecules that can correct the fault that’s driving a cancer – by correcting this fault you force the cancer cell to die,” says Klausner.

Essentially, macromolecules have the ability to differentiate between banks with empty vaults and safety deposit boxes and ones containing all the jewels and money.

So far the promise of macromolecules has only been shown in the controlled environment of the lab. What about using these drugs in patients? Will they work in the same way?

Research so far suggests that we can develop and make macromolecules that could be used to kill cancer cells and leave healthy cells alone.

Only there’s one pretty big problem – we can’t get the drugs into any type of cell – cancerous or otherwise – in people.

That’s where our Grand Challenge comes in.

We’re asking the research community to think about how we can get potentially promising ‘smart drugs’ into all the patient’s cells, and not just cancer cells.

“The best bit is that the macromolecule is targeted to only kill a cell that has that specific fault” says Klausner.

“It doesn’t matter if the macromolecule gets into healthy cells as they don’t contain the fault the drug’s designed to fix and would be left unharmed.”

We’re asking researchers to pull off the greatest cell heist ever.

The ultimate cell heist

Before the Hatton Garden thieves carried out their jewel heist they had to be prepared.

They had to bypass the security system and have tools to open the security deposit boxes once inside.

Most importantly, they needed equipment to get through the massive two meter thick concrete walls surrounding the vault.

This is the problem scientists are facing with macromolecules.

They haven’t yet got the tools they need to get macromolecule drugs inside any cell of the body, let alone cancer cells.

“We know an enormous amount about cancer and about the differences between cancer cells and healthy cells,” says Klausner.

“And we have the lab tools to create macromolecules that are designed to fix a specific genetic fault – like a faulty RAS gene or BRCA gene that’s driving a cancer cell’s growth.”

“But they’re no use because we can’t get them into any type of cell – we can’t rob any bank, full or empty.”

“For a long time almost everyone working in this field has been trying to figure out how to only deliver macromolecules to cancer cells. But this Grand Challenge is saying ‘don’t worry about that; don’t worry about being cell specific’. If we can figure out how to get macromolecule inside all cells, the rest will take care of itself – the drug will distinguish a healthy cell from a cancer cell and leave it alone.”

Patient Perspective

In the time since my diagnosis nearly 30 years ago I’ve seen what science can do and the huge advancements it can make. With the technology and knowledge we have now, and with funding schemes like The Grand Challenge, imagine how far we can go in the next 30 years.

This Grand Challenge is about encouraging scientists to think of, and maybe even develop, new ways to get macromolecules into cells in the body. We know it can be done in the lab, but it’s not yet been done outside that environment. If it’s successful, this challenge would take cancer research to another level. It’s a difficult challenge, but I welcome it and the optimism it offers the field of cancer research and cancer patients of the future.

– Terry, member of our Grand Challenge patient panel

Are we there yet?

So how are we going to get there? How are we going to pull off the ultimate heist and get these drugs into cells?

The honest answer is, we don’t know – that’s why this is such a big challenge.

Professor Duncan Graham, a nanoscientist from the University of Strathclyde and an expert adviser to Cancer Research UK, says:  “It’s impossible to predict exactly how this Grand Challenge will be answered. There are techniques available that we could perhaps use to disrupt cell membranes, make them leaky and increase their permeability to bigger drugs. We could use a physical force like ultrasound, or an energy force like localised heating. Or it could be something like low dose, localised radiation or magnetic fields”.

Answering this Grand Challenge will require bringing together the complementary expertise of different researchers from different areas of science to come up with a radically new proposal and solution to the problem

– Professor Duncan Graham

“Equally, it could be something completely new and non-traditional. We just don’t know.”

But there is one thing he knows will help us answer the question – collaboration.

“Answering this Grand Challenge will require bringing together the complementary expertise of different researchers from different areas of science to come up with a radically new proposal and solution to the problem,” says Graham.

“Every time I speak to cancer researchers I find out a bit more about cancer. And they find out a bit more about nanoparticles – the science behind them and how they could be useful to them. It’s not an area they’re aware of because it’s such a different field from theirs.”

Klausner agrees: “This problem is going to be solved by bringing together people who understand biology, physiology and cells with chemists, material scientists and people in the imaging field. We need to bring together people from very different areas to achieve this.”

There is one thing we can be sure of though.

If we overcome this Grand Challenge and work out a way to get macromolecules into cells, there is massive potential for offering new treatment options to patients.

That’s definitely something to aim for.

Áine

• If you’re a researcher and want to build a team to take on this challenge, visit our website to find out how you can apply.

from Cancer Research UK - Science blog http://ift.tt/1NOqqdk

This entry is part 8 of 8 in the series Grand Challenge

In October 2015 we launched the Cancer Research UK Grand Challenge – a £100m scheme to tackle seven of the biggest challenges in understanding and treating cancer.  

And in a series of posts we’re exploring each of the seven Grand Challenge questions set by a panel of the world’s leading cancer experts. The seventh of our Grand Challenge topics is posing the question: can we kill cancer cells in patients using new ‘smart drugs’?

The Hatton Garden jewel heist of 2015 has been described as “the biggest burglary in English legal history”.

Those responsible successfully entered an underground vault, emptying 72 safety deposit boxes and walking away with £14 million worth of jewels.

But what does gaining access to a vault and emptying safety deposit boxes have to do with cancer? Surprisingly, more than you’d think.

Our final Grand Challenge is the ultimate cellular heist, attempting to sneak the latest ‘smart drugs’ – or macromolecules if we’re being technical – inside the body so they can take out cancer cells.

Big drugs, big potential

Dr Rick Klausner, former Director of the US National Cancer Institute and chair of our Grand Challenge Advisory Panel, describes macromolecules as “machines that have been produced through evolution”.

They are large molecules, pieced together from smaller building blocks. And there are four main types:

• Nucleic acids – like DNA
• Proteins – for example antibodies
• Carbohydrates – things like starch
• Lipids – things like fats and cholesterol

Each type of macromolecule carries out a wide range of jobs inside cells. They’re essential for growth and survival – without them, cells would die.

And if they become faulty or damaged, things can go wrong.

For example, abnormal build up of the protein Beta-amyloid is found in patients with Alzheimer’s disease, while faults in DNA can lead to cancer.

But macromolecules can also be engineered to help combat diseases. And some have been used as treatments for cancer.

Is bigger better?

Most drugs used to treat cancer patients aren’t macromolecules – they’re much smaller, so they have no trouble getting inside cells.

And if those cells are cancer cells these drugs can do an effective job of killing the tumour cells.

But they have a downside – these drugs can also get inside healthy cells, damaging and killing them as well as cancer cells.

That’s why patients’ hair often falls out when they’re being given chemotherapy treatment. The drugs can’t tell a fast growing cancer cell from a fast growing healthy cell, like a hair cell.

We need to develop macromolecule drugs that can get inside cancer cells, where they can do a lot of damage – Dr Rick Klausner

This is one reason why researchers are turning to macromolecules. They know that in some circumstances these molecules have the potential to target and kill only cancer cells.

Some macromolecule drugs – including antibodies like rituximab (Mabthera), which is used to treat Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma, and trastuzumab (Herceptin), used for HER2 positive breast cancer patients – have been a great success.

But these treatments have been successful because they don’t need to get inside the cancer cells. They work by targeting and killing cancer cells that have specific molecules on their cell surface.

“These drugs are good, but the problem is they don’t go inside cancer cells,” says Klausner. “They work on the cell surface, messing it up and killing the cell that way.”

So if a researcher wanted to target a faulty molecule inside cells, these macromolecule drugs wouldn’t be up to the job.

If we imagine all cells are like banks – and the cancer cells have their vaults full of faulty molecules we want to target – then the drugs we have work in one of two ways:

1. Smaller drugs can get inside every bank, and while some will hit a full vault they may also hit some where there’s no cash inside.
2. Or, we have certain macromolecule drugs – like antibodies – that only work if there’s an ATM built into the bank’s walls that has cash hanging out of it.

“This isn’t enough,” says Klausner. “We need to develop macromolecule drugs that can get inside cancer cells, where they can do a lot of damage.” But why – what’s the advantage of macromolecules that can get inside cells over the drugs and antibodies we already have?

“In the lab we have tools that allow us to develop macromolecules that can correct the fault that’s driving a cancer – by correcting this fault you force the cancer cell to die,” says Klausner.

Essentially, macromolecules have the ability to differentiate between banks with empty vaults and safety deposit boxes and ones containing all the jewels and money.

So far the promise of macromolecules has only been shown in the controlled environment of the lab. What about using these drugs in patients? Will they work in the same way?

Research so far suggests that we can develop and make macromolecules that could be used to kill cancer cells and leave healthy cells alone.

Only there’s one pretty big problem – we can’t get the drugs into any type of cell – cancerous or otherwise – in people.

That’s where our Grand Challenge comes in.

We’re asking the research community to think about how we can get potentially promising ‘smart drugs’ into all the patient’s cells, and not just cancer cells.

“The best bit is that the macromolecule is targeted to only kill a cell that has that specific fault” says Klausner.

“It doesn’t matter if the macromolecule gets into healthy cells as they don’t contain the fault the drug’s designed to fix and would be left unharmed.”

We’re asking researchers to pull off the greatest cell heist ever.

The ultimate cell heist

Before the Hatton Garden thieves carried out their jewel heist they had to be prepared.

They had to bypass the security system and have tools to open the security deposit boxes once inside.

Most importantly, they needed equipment to get through the massive two meter thick concrete walls surrounding the vault.

This is the problem scientists are facing with macromolecules.

They haven’t yet got the tools they need to get macromolecule drugs inside any cell of the body, let alone cancer cells.

“We know an enormous amount about cancer and about the differences between cancer cells and healthy cells,” says Klausner.

“And we have the lab tools to create macromolecules that are designed to fix a specific genetic fault – like a faulty RAS gene or BRCA gene that’s driving a cancer cell’s growth.”

“But they’re no use because we can’t get them into any type of cell – we can’t rob any bank, full or empty.”

“For a long time almost everyone working in this field has been trying to figure out how to only deliver macromolecules to cancer cells. But this Grand Challenge is saying ‘don’t worry about that; don’t worry about being cell specific’. If we can figure out how to get macromolecule inside all cells, the rest will take care of itself – the drug will distinguish a healthy cell from a cancer cell and leave it alone.”

Patient Perspective

In the time since my diagnosis nearly 30 years ago I’ve seen what science can do and the huge advancements it can make. With the technology and knowledge we have now, and with funding schemes like The Grand Challenge, imagine how far we can go in the next 30 years.

This Grand Challenge is about encouraging scientists to think of, and maybe even develop, new ways to get macromolecules into cells in the body. We know it can be done in the lab, but it’s not yet been done outside that environment. If it’s successful, this challenge would take cancer research to another level. It’s a difficult challenge, but I welcome it and the optimism it offers the field of cancer research and cancer patients of the future.

– Terry, member of our Grand Challenge patient panel

Are we there yet?

So how are we going to get there? How are we going to pull off the ultimate heist and get these drugs into cells?

The honest answer is, we don’t know – that’s why this is such a big challenge.

Professor Duncan Graham, a nanoscientist from the University of Strathclyde and an expert adviser to Cancer Research UK, says:  “It’s impossible to predict exactly how this Grand Challenge will be answered. There are techniques available that we could perhaps use to disrupt cell membranes, make them leaky and increase their permeability to bigger drugs. We could use a physical force like ultrasound, or an energy force like localised heating. Or it could be something like low dose, localised radiation or magnetic fields”.

Answering this Grand Challenge will require bringing together the complementary expertise of different researchers from different areas of science to come up with a radically new proposal and solution to the problem

– Professor Duncan Graham

“Equally, it could be something completely new and non-traditional. We just don’t know.”

But there is one thing he knows will help us answer the question – collaboration.

“Answering this Grand Challenge will require bringing together the complementary expertise of different researchers from different areas of science to come up with a radically new proposal and solution to the problem,” says Graham.

“Every time I speak to cancer researchers I find out a bit more about cancer. And they find out a bit more about nanoparticles – the science behind them and how they could be useful to them. It’s not an area they’re aware of because it’s such a different field from theirs.”

Klausner agrees: “This problem is going to be solved by bringing together people who understand biology, physiology and cells with chemists, material scientists and people in the imaging field. We need to bring together people from very different areas to achieve this.”

There is one thing we can be sure of though.

If we overcome this Grand Challenge and work out a way to get macromolecules into cells, there is massive potential for offering new treatment options to patients.

That’s definitely something to aim for.

Áine

• If you’re a researcher and want to build a team to take on this challenge, visit our website to find out how you can apply.

from Cancer Research UK - Science blog http://ift.tt/1NOqqdk

How much do candidates’ faces influence voters?

Featured Media Resource: [VIDEO] “How Quickly Do You Judge a Face? ” (Science Friday)
By looking at a face for less than a second, we can judge someone’s age, gender, race, emotional state and even their trustworthiness. There’s evidence that these split-second decisions can affect voters’ views of political candidates.

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Do Read More …

Source:: DoNow Science

from QUEST http://ift.tt/1NOjfSf

Featured Media Resource: [VIDEO] “How Quickly Do You Judge a Face? ” (Science Friday)
By looking at a face for less than a second, we can judge someone’s age, gender, race, emotional state and even their trustworthiness. There’s evidence that these split-second decisions can affect voters’ views of political candidates.

---

Do Read More …

Source:: DoNow Science

from QUEST http://ift.tt/1NOjfSf

Moon, Saturn, Antares on February 3

Before dawn on Wednesday, February 3, 2016, watch for the waning crescent moon shining close to the golden planet Saturn. The fainter, twinkling, ruddy object in the vicinity of the moon and Saturn is Antares, the brightest star in the constellation Scorpius the Scorpion. Antares represents the Scorpion’s Heart.

You can’t see Saturn’s rings through ordinary field binoculars, though binoculars are great for getting an eyeful of earthshine on the dark side of the moon.

But you can view Saturn’s rings with a modest backyard telescope. Try your luck tomorrow, before dawn.

Once you’ve identified Saturn, jump off from there to witness all five visible planets in the same sky. From east to west, the five visible planets are Mercury, Venus, Saturn, Mars and Jupiter. Look for Mars and Jupiter a good ways to the west of the ringed planet. The bow of the lunar crescent points in the direction of Venus and Mercury near the southeast horizon, but don’t expect to see Mercury until darkness first begins to give way to dawn (80 to 70 minutes before sunrise).

The five visible planets will adorn the February morning sky until around February 20. In the chart below, Mars shines close to due south, so Jupiter lies outside this chart in the southwest sky. Scroll to the bottom of this post for an additional chart showing Jupiter and all five planets in the morning sky.

In their order of brightness, the five planets are Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Saturn and Mars. Mercury may not appear as bright as Saturn or Mars, however, because the solar system’s innermost planet sits so close to the horizon and in the glare of sunrise.

View larger. | For illustrative purposes, the moon appears larger than it does in the real sky. Mid-northern latitudes in Europe and Asia will see the moon somewhat offset toward the previous date. The green line on the above chart depicts the ecliptic – Earth’s orbital plane projected onto the constellations of the Zodiac.

Read more: See all 5 planets at once!

View larger. | Beginning around January 20 – through mid-February – you can see five bright planets at once in the predawn sky.

Bottom line: Before dawn on Wednesday, February 3, 2016, let the moon introduce you to Saturn – and, in fact, all five visible morning planets.

from EarthSky http://ift.tt/20Bt6nz

Before dawn on Wednesday, February 3, 2016, watch for the waning crescent moon shining close to the golden planet Saturn. The fainter, twinkling, ruddy object in the vicinity of the moon and Saturn is Antares, the brightest star in the constellation Scorpius the Scorpion. Antares represents the Scorpion’s Heart.

You can’t see Saturn’s rings through ordinary field binoculars, though binoculars are great for getting an eyeful of earthshine on the dark side of the moon.

But you can view Saturn’s rings with a modest backyard telescope. Try your luck tomorrow, before dawn.

Once you’ve identified Saturn, jump off from there to witness all five visible planets in the same sky. From east to west, the five visible planets are Mercury, Venus, Saturn, Mars and Jupiter. Look for Mars and Jupiter a good ways to the west of the ringed planet. The bow of the lunar crescent points in the direction of Venus and Mercury near the southeast horizon, but don’t expect to see Mercury until darkness first begins to give way to dawn (80 to 70 minutes before sunrise).

The five visible planets will adorn the February morning sky until around February 20. In the chart below, Mars shines close to due south, so Jupiter lies outside this chart in the southwest sky. Scroll to the bottom of this post for an additional chart showing Jupiter and all five planets in the morning sky.

In their order of brightness, the five planets are Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Saturn and Mars. Mercury may not appear as bright as Saturn or Mars, however, because the solar system’s innermost planet sits so close to the horizon and in the glare of sunrise.

View larger. | For illustrative purposes, the moon appears larger than it does in the real sky. Mid-northern latitudes in Europe and Asia will see the moon somewhat offset toward the previous date. The green line on the above chart depicts the ecliptic – Earth’s orbital plane projected onto the constellations of the Zodiac.

Read more: See all 5 planets at once!

View larger. | Beginning around January 20 – through mid-February – you can see five bright planets at once in the predawn sky.

Bottom line: Before dawn on Wednesday, February 3, 2016, let the moon introduce you to Saturn – and, in fact, all five visible morning planets.

from EarthSky http://ift.tt/20Bt6nz

POTW 2! [EvolutionBlog]

The second Problem Of The Week has now been posted, along with an official solution to the first problem. Enjoy!

from ScienceBlogs http://ift.tt/1POiCcC

The second Problem Of The Week has now been posted, along with an official solution to the first problem. Enjoy!

from ScienceBlogs http://ift.tt/1POiCcC